Ancient China: September 2018

Saturday, September 15, 2018

The Three Ancient Dynasties

The Xia Dynasty:

Traditional Legends of the Sage-Rulers

according to Chinese myths human beings had their origin in parasites
these were on the body of the Creator
after his death a succession of sage rulers introduced inventions institutions
the first sage was Fuxi – he domesticated animals and instituted marriage.
the next sage ruler was Shennong – he introduced agriculture, medicine, and trade.
next sage-ruler - Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor (invented writing, ceramics, & the calendar).
centuries later came the next ruler, Emperor Yao
he introduced flood controls
he decided that his son was unworthy to be his successor
instead he chose a humble sage called Shun.
the reigns of Yao and Shun are considered to be the Golden Age of Chinese history.
these acts of abdication are examples of a tradition of selflessness
it questioned whether hereditary rule is desirable
Shun awarded the succession to his faithful minister Yu
it is at this point that China’s prehistory begins to merge with history.
Yu, whose reign began in 2205 BCE allegedly founded the Xia dynasty
his rule marks the end of the period of righteous abdication
the principle of dynastic rule now falls under moral justification

China's Ancient Dynasties:

the traditional history of China includes the three ancient dynasties:
a) the Xia (2205-1766 BCE),
b) the Shang (1766-1050 BCE)
c) the Zhou (1050-256)

technically history begins with recorded history;
pre-history is the period for which there are no written records.
up until the 1920s scholars believed that the first two (Xia & Shang) were legendary.
with the discovery of the Shang the outlook has changed
perhaps the Xia actually did exist as a legitimate dynasty
it is purely conjecture at this point.
excavations of Anyang uncovered the ruins of a city
it was surrounded by a wall that had been a capital of the Shang
other cities have since been excavated

the discovery of the "oracle bones" have led to further speculation
this is about the origins of the Chinese language and the emergence of religion
it has also given scholars a good understanding of the Shang Dynasty.

The Archaeological Records of the Xia Dynasty:

the Xia dynasty may have existed between approximately 2200 and 1750 BC
this is along the Yellow River near Luoyang and
to the North of this area, in the Fen River valley.
the pottery discoveries suggest that the Xia culture derived from Longshan.
the most important site identified with the Xia is Erlitou
in Henan palace-like buildings and tombs have been uncovered
here the earliest bronze vessels have been found.

this excavation of 1922 suggests that Erlitou may have been a capital of the Xia dynasty.
the Erlitou culture was widespread in the region of northwest Henan.
it was a direct successor to the Longshan Black Pottery culture

The Shang Dynasty:

between 3500 & 2000 BCE farming communities got closer to each other
they developed features characteristic of civilization
special craftsmen produced pottery drinking cups, jars and bowls
some were on stems or three legs.
these were used for religious ceremonies
jade was of great importance & was widely distributed
often the rulers were buried with them.

soon competition led to warfare
it also led to the building of large defensive walls made of stamped earth.
around 1800 BCE most of northern China was united under the Shang dynasty.

The State Capitals: Archaeological Findings

the second of the ancient dynasties was the Shang (1766-1122 BCE.)
it was once believed that the three ancient dynasties were successive
but the Shang dynasty was already a strong entity before it overthrew the Xia.
the three dynasties overlapped both in time and in territory.
the Shang state had a series of capitals
Zhengzhou and Anyang were the most important ones
Zhengzhou was the capital in the early or middle period of the dynasty
Anyang was occupied around 1300-1050 BCE.
at Zhengzhou, a city wall of about 4 miles long enclosed a large settlement
the wall and the buildings inside the wall use the “stamped earth” technique.
discoveries indicate that Shang society was highly organized and socially stratified
it confirms a similar impression made from the findings at Anyang
outside Anyang, at Xiaotun they discovered a ceremonial and administrative centre .
at Xibeigang, two miles north of Xiaotun, 11 large cruciform graves have been found
they may belong to the 11 Shang monarchs, recorded as having reigned at Anyang.
in 1928 archaeologists began the scientific excavations at Anyang.
after 1950, the earlier Shang capital at Zhengzhou was uncovered.
in these Shang capital cities were royal palaces and upper-class residence
they were of the post-and-beam construction on stamped-earth platforms,
they were built in the basic architectural styles of Beijing’s Forbidden City.
Anyang had the stamped-earth foundations, as hard as cement
of 53 buildings, many were of stone-pillar bases
subterranean pit houses nearby were used as storage
the aristocracy had the services of artisans
artisans were specialists in the art of bronze metallurgy, pottery, and crafts.

The Shang State:

the Shang rulers performed an important ritual role
they were also involved with administering the state
they were served by officials who had specialized functions.
the rulers were supported by aristocratic clans (families)
they had kinship or marriage connections.
aristocratic society practised military skills and fought using horse chariots.
the king had the right to demand services from the clan leaders
these included labour services and military duties.
Shang rulers & aristocratic supporters waged aggressive campaigns against their neighbours. - in this way, they were able to obtain prisoners and loot.
the Shang rulers established new towns and the opening of new lands for farming.
they extended their authority along the Yellow River to the Wei valley and to the north.

the Shang also established relations with a state called Shu
this may refer to a culture that had developed independently in Sichuan.
the economic basis of the Shang was agriculture,
they cultivated millet - it was their most important crop
the area of the North China Plain was warmer and more moist than today
the area was well forested.

The Oracle Bones:

much of the information on Shang society comes from their inscriptions
they were made on the shoulder blades of oxen (scapulimancy)
they were less common on the shells of tortoises (plastromancy)
here was a time when they were referred to as “dragon bones”
they were grounded up for medicinal uses.

in 1899 it was noted that Chinese pharmacists were selling these
they were called “dragon bones” and were inscribed in archaic characters.
by the late 1920’s private buyers had traced these “oracle bones” to a site near Anyang

in 1928 archaeologists began scientific excavations of the last Shang capital at Anyang
this continued until Japan attacked China in 1937
after 1950 an earlier Shang capital was found near the present day Zhengzhou.
these Shang capital cities contain royal palaces
they had upper-class residences of post-and-beam construction on stamped-earth platforms,
at Anyang, they found the foundations of 53 buildings with subterranean pit houses
they were probably uses as storage houses and service quarters.
the aristocracy seemed to have made used of artisans
they were specialists in the development of bronze metallurgy, pottery, and other crafts
the bronzes were never surpassed in craftsmanship
the Shang king was served by diviners (shamans ?) who handled the writing system
they took the auspices by scapulimancy
by putting a fire to the bones, cracks were created
these were interpreted as the advice of the ancestors
then, they would inscribe the advice on the bones
much of the information we have on the Shang society comes from these inscriptions. -
over 150,000 fragments of Shang “oracle bones” have been identified
these have provided a major source of evidence about the Shang state.

the discovery of these oracle bones bones was at the turn of the 20th century
these inscriptions are records of divination, performed by the kings of the Shang Dynasty.
heating the bones with fire would produce cracks on the bones which were "read" by diviners
this practice had its origins during the Neolithic period
during the Shang period only flat bones (from tortoises and cattle)were used.
the shape of the cracks were given interpretations -
they indicated a deity's reply to a question posed -
the king made the final prognostication
the inscriptions (originating around 1250 BCE) was a record of the process
a large majority of the 48,000 currently published inscriptions deal with sacrificial rites
the oracle bones offer a variety of topics
they offer scholars and historians knowledge of Shang society and culture
questions were addressed to deities, nature gods,and ancestral gods
it was to seek answers to the following topics:
a) weather conditions,
b) astronomic phenomena,
c) military campaigns,
d) political alliances,
e) the ruler's illnesses,
f) the consort's childbirth,
g) the establishment of new settlements
h) the prospects of hunting.

the practice of divination of this sort was abandoned by the Zhou kings
this probably indicated the confidence of making decisions without the help of deities.
many of the inscriptions relate to future events
they have been translated as questions addressed to an oracle
recently it has been argued that the inscriptions are not questions
they are statements or predictions
the divination process formed part of the sacrificial rite.
once the bones were inscribed, a heated bronze tool was applied
the cracks that appeared were interpreted as a response to the question or prediction.
some of these inscriptions related to the actions of the king and his allies
this gave scholars information about the organization of the Shang state.

the inscriptions use a vocabulary of more than 3,000 different graphs and
this includes a dating system based on a 10-day week and a 60-day cycle.
the bones reveal to us several things:
a) that the Shang aristocracy lived a superior life,
b) they fought using horse chariots,
c) they hunted for sport
d) they performed rites and ceremonies,
e) they were served by scribes and artisans
f) they were supported by the agriculture of the surrounding village peasants
these peasants lived in these subterranean dwelling pits
Shang society was highly stratified.

here some examples of inscriptions:

The Power of Di:

a) “Will Di perhaps send down drought upon us?”

b) “Will Di, bring disaster to our harvest? Will Di not bring disaster to our harvest? The king prognosticated, saying, “Di shall not bring disaster”

These inscriptions illustrate that no subject concerned the king more than the success of the crops, rightly so, since Shang society was agricultural.

Other examples that illustrate the power of Di:

c) “Will Di perhaps bring an end to this city?”

d) “If the king establishes a walled town, will Di show approval?”

e) “Shall we sacrifice two dogs to Di’s envoy Wind?”

Natural Deities:

f) “Shall we make a burnt offering to Cloud Di?”

g) “If we, perhaps, perform a fire sacrifice to Snow, will there be a great rain?”

h) “Shall we pray for harvest to the Yellow River?”

i)“Is it the Yellow River that is harming the king?”

Ancestral Spirits:

j) “Is the High Ancestor Shang-jia who is preventing the rain?”

k) “Should we protect the king’s eyes against Grandmother Ji”

l) “Is it Father Yi who is hurting the king’s tooth?”

Military Affairs, Hunting, Agriculture, & the King’s Ritual Leadership:

m) The king made cracks and divined: We shall hunt at Ji; coming and going there shall be no disaster. The king prognosticated, saying, “It is extremely auspicious.” Acting on this we captured 41 foxes and 8 hornless deer.”

n) “The king shall go and lead the multitudes in planning grain at Qiong.”

Examples are from Robert Eno, “Deities and Ancestors in Early Oracle Inscriptions” in Donald S. Lopez, ed. Religions of China in Practice, (Princeton: NJ, Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 41-51

The Shang Bronzes:

the Neolithic period saw a rise in the production of art in general
this offers us a glimpse into the spiritual world of the pre-historic-population
the findings that are most prized and highly regarded are the bronze vessels and implements
many were made for ceremonial purposes.
knowledge of metallurgy was a gradual process in China

it was the king who controlled the production and use of bronze
the extraction of metal ore and the manufacture of bronze objects were a major industry,
it was an industry that employed a large amount of skilled craftsmen.
a great level of sophistication was reached which produced complex bronze vessels
this was centred at the Erlitou site
large quantities of them was not achieved until about 1500 BCE.

metal production was a late-comer to China
other civilizations had already established their metallurgical industries
these were in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus valley
but in China the scale of production exceeded those of other civilization.
the technology required sophisticated specialization
these were mining, casting into ingots, transportation, and casting into vessels
this could only be achieved by a state-run industry under the auspices of the Shang court.
both Anyang and Zhengzhou were production sites during the early period.
bronze was used at various times for weapons, armour, and chariot fitting
it was also used for ceremonial rituals.
the earliest bronze vessels have been found at Elliott
important finds of bronze vessels were made at Zhengzhou and Anyang
these were the two Shang capitals.
these vessels had a ritual function - for sacrificial meats heating wine
many of these vessels are decorated with stylized surface decorations
he most famous motif is the taotie - a monster mask intended to avert evil.

jade was also used for ritual purposes, as it had been at the Longshan culture.
two jade forms were common:
a pierced disk known as bi
a tube of square cross section known as cong.
Shang kings were buried in large pit
it would require the labour of hundreds of men to excavate.
their corpses were placed in wooded coffins & were surrounded by grave goods
on the ramps, leading to the bottom of the pit lay human bodies and horses
these human victims,( prisoners of war) had sometimes been beheaded.

Fu Hao:

Fu Hao, the consort of a Shang King,Wuding (r. 1324-1266 BCE), died in 1250 BCE,
her tomb was discovered intact in 1976

it contained about 200 bronze vessels, some in the shape of animals

also 1600 objects were buried with her

this included jade , pottery, bronzes, cowrie shells, ivory beakers etc …

also 6 dogs and 16 men, women, and children were buried with her.

the bronzes in her tomb are larger than those found in the graves of aristocrats
this suggested that Shang society was stratified.
like many of the king’s wives (most wives were relegated to just domestic duties),
she played an important role in government
she was an army general and led many campaigns.

Shang Religion:

the oracle bones, bronze vessels, and burial practices gives us insight into the Shang religion.
the Shang people worshipped many deities
most of them were royal ancestors
some were nature spirits
others were probably derived from popular myths or local cults.
it had been an assumption that the Shang religion had a single supreme deity
he is referred to as Di, part ancestral figure and part a natural force
he presided at the apex of the Shang pantheon.
recent studies has rejected the idea of Di as a high god
it seems in the Shang religion Di was the term used to refer collectively to “the gods”
or he was some impartial deity with the exclusive right to give out orders to other powers
it was only under the Zhou that the idea of a supreme god emerges.
from the tombs it is clear that the Shang believed in an afterlife
divination may have been addressed to departed ancestors.

The Bureaucratization of Religion

the Shang people regulated their relations to deities according to a set of rules
five standard rites were performed in a sequence for each of the major ancestors
communicating with them was not random
it was scheduled and regulated according to their 10 day week.
as seen with the oracle bones divination was highly regulated
it had specific set questions,
it had careful recordings of questions and answers
it was carefully preserved
the regularization became more pronounced as the dynasty continued along
this tendency became ever more regulated with the next dynasty

The Fall of the Shang

the details surrounding the collapse of the Shang are somewhat obscured
very little is known about the ruler prior to the last Shang ruler - Zhouxin
he is generally presented as the ultimate monster leader.
the Shang state seemed have decreased in size
the names of many former allies and dependencies appear often in the early descriptions\
but they disappear in the inscriptions of the last 50 years of Shang rule
this goes from from 600 names to 7
the hunting records suggest they now hunted only near the capital.
most of the textual sources demonize the last ruler
Zhouxin was viewed as an arrogant and negligent ruler, inventing cruel forms of torture etc …
his explains the eventual dissent of the Shang allies
also King Wen of Zhou organized a coalition
he expanded eastward & approached the Shang territory
Wen died but soon his son, King Wu, led the assault on the Shang
Zhouxin was defeated, committed suicide.
the Shang dynasty remains a turning point in the history of China
many of the characteristics of Chinese civilization can be traced to the Shang
the most notable is writing;
others are
a) ancestor worship,
b) bronze casting,
c) calendar keeping

the Shang marks the start of the synthesis of social, political, and religious power systems
they remained a central feature of Chinese civilization
later these features were to undergo modifications.

Recapitulation:

in this development the Xia and the Shang begin to take a tangible form
this is what they tell us about China’s origins
1
there seems to have been a smooth transition from the innumerable Neolithic villages of the Longshan culture to the Bronze Age capital cities of the three Dynasties, of which can be viewed as successive stages of a single cultural development.
2
by looking at the tools and weapons, the pots and vessels, the domestication of crops and animals, the architectural layout of settlement and burials, and the evident practices of religion and government, we begin to see a high degree of cultural homogeneity and continuity.
one dynasty succeeded another through warfare
there is no evidence of any invasion from an “outside” culture.
3
the Xia, Shang, and Zhou seem to have co-existed
they were centred in three different areas.
the Shang and then the Zhou became the dominant centre of ancient North China.
these ancient capitals testify to the power of kingship
this was based on sedentary, land-locked agriculture
it was not based on mobile waterborne trade with other areas.

The Beginnings of a Central Authority:

the deposits of the Yangshao and Longshan types of pottery are found in different areas
this would be in half a dozen or more areas on the North Plain
this includes along the Yellow River and Lower Yangzi
this shows the differences of local cultures
contacts among these Neolithic farming villages grew
this produced a broader government from a central capital.
family lineages, derived from large tribal clans, set up their separated wall towns
the oracle bones do name about a thousand towns.
lineages established relations by marriage headed by a patriarch.
the making of bronze coincided with the rise of the first central government
this was during the Xia and Shang dynasties over a broad area
only a strong authority could ensure the mining of ore.
the making ritual vessels of bronze had several implications:
a royal authority was concerned with rituals as an aspect of power
it was able to assign manpower to the onerous task of mining ore and refining metals.
in the Xia and Shang the ruling family made use of elaborate and dramatic rituals
this was to confirm their power to rule
they would communicate with the spirits of the ancestors to secure their help and guidance.
the shaman would be aided by his power animal
it was considered to have a totemic relation to the ancestor.
these were represented on the Shang bronze vessels by animal designs
a good example is the symmetrical and bilateral animal masks (taotie).
by practising a religious cult of the ancestors, local rulers made legitimate their authority
some became lords over groups of towns
one group would merge with another until a single ruling dynasty could emerge in an area

Monday, September 3, 2018

THE PREHISTORY OF CHINA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

Palaeolithic China: Tracing the Evolution

archaeology is a relatively recent enterprise in China
the origins of the Chinese people is not a topic that is yet fully understood
advances in archaeology is part of China’s modernization.

the shift away from the antiquarian tradition started in the 19th century
this was when a scientific approach took shape
the antiquarian tradition emerged during the Tang period
it climaxed during the Song period
its practice recorded various artifacts and objects divorced from their archaeological contexts.
the initial systematic archaeological studies began early in the 20th century
this was when foreigners began excavations in China
the result was the well-documented discovery (1927) of fossilized remains
this consisted of more than 40 individuals - homo erectus (Peking Man)
this was in a cave at Zhoukoudian, some 30 miles south-west of Beijing

during the time an international team headed by Jia Lanpo took place at Anyang
Li Ji and others also excavated at Chengziyai, in Longshan
the importance of Anyang is that it was the evidence that the Shang Dynasty had existed
previously it was believed that the Shang was a legend.
other sites were excavated
the Nihewan basin (Hebei) display the existence of early humans
early Neolithic sites such as Jiahu suggest the initiation of agriculture.
others, like Niuheliang (Liaoning) suggests the early practices of rituals.
the group of sites in the Nihewan basin, was occupied from about 1.7 million to 10,000 BCE,
this offers evidence of the earliest presence of humans in East Asia - homo erectus
no human fossils were found, only artifacts
fossil teeth discovered at Yuanmou (Yunnan) may be that of the earliest human remains
they closely resemble those of homo erectus at Zhoukoudian
homo erctus skull found at Gongwangling (Lantian, Shaanxi)
stone tools at Xihoudu (Ruicheng, Shaanxi) indicate evidence of the early humans in China
this was during the early Pleistocene era
other similar sites suggest that homo erectus was widely dispersed throughout China
the Middle Pleistocene evidence comes from numerous sites, including that of Peking man
skullcaps, crania, mandible, femur, and other bone fragments were discovered
they were lost while being shipped out of China to the United States during the war
casts are all that remain
the excavation from 1921 to 1937 and since 1959 has uncovered many things:
a) about 100,000 stone tools,
b) over 100 teeth, 14 skulls
c) bones representing some 51 individuals of homo erectus
one cave found was quite large, 500x150 feet and in one area 120 feet from floor to ceiling,
it was inhabited continuously for about 100,000 years
these hominids were hunter-gatherers who used stone tools and made fire.

these people were small in stature;
Peking Man stood at 5ft. 2 in. while women were about 4’9” tall
they had the cranial capacity of 850-1300 cc compared to Java Man’s 775-900 cc
early homo sapiens has one of 1350 cc
their diets consisted of 70% deer
bones of many animals were found:
the leopard, bear, sabre-toothed tiger, hyena, elephant, rhinoceros, camel, water buffalo
also boar, and horse were found
there were no burials or complete skeletons

Zhoukoudian:

one of the greatest prehistoric sites in the world
it’s been studied for 80 years
it became an important archaeological sites & paleontological sites in 1927
its discovery was stimulated by the identity of an “ape man: in a apothecary shop

the site is a limestone cave, 31 miles southwest of Beijing
excavations were carried out from 1927 to 1937
the team was made of Canadian, Swedish, German, Austrian, American, French, and Chinese scholars

several places around that area has given scholars evidence of hominid - - activity & non-hominid fossils
these range from seven millions years ago

Homo Erectus & Its Evidence

the most productive site was Locality 1 which had the largest collection of homo erectus fossils ever found at one site
it had 6 complete skull caps & other bones 45 individuals
it contained over 6,000 stone artifacts, an extensive collection of animal bones and some plant remains.
they were nondescript stone tools & flaked items, large amounts of quartz
there seams to be evidence of fire found within the layers connected with human occupation
the interpretation from Zhoukoudian raises controversy
the traditional interpretation was of a cave-dwelling big game hunter that cooked over fires
others have suggested that homo erectus was not so advanced
the animal bones & hominid remains were the result of scavenging hyenas (their remains were also there)
any evidence for fire was due to natural causes (lightning)

Earlier Evidence

there is some evidence to suggest the presence of hominids earlier than those of Zhoukoudian
a cave site at Longgupo (souther China contains an hominid tooth & some stone artifacts - the tooth seems to have primitive characteristics
this seems be linked with homo eragster or homo habilis

the dating is controversial - they range from 2.4 million to less than one million
other sites of one million years of age have been found at Nihewan basin & at Yuanmou (Yunnan).

the evolutionary timeline is simple:
a) Yuanmou Man: c. 1.6 -1.7 million years ago.
b) Lantian man: 700,000 - 650, 000 years ago.
c) Peking man: 500, 000 - 400, 000 years ago.

Early homo sapiens:

there are some 30 or so sites that go back to 280,000 and 250, 000 years ago
these sites are evidence of the activities of archaic humans or pre-modern humans.
three sites prove that pre-modern humans occupied China:
Jinniushan,
Maba,
Dali
at Jinniushan (Yinkou, Liaoning) chipped stone tools were found
they’ve been dated to be at around 260,000 years old
an almost complete skull was found
the cranial capacity to be 1,260 cc
this was an hominid in transition between being homo erectus and archaic homo sapiens
a similar find at Dali (Shaanxi) suggest another transitional hominid
it dated between 230,000 and 180, 000 years ago
fragments of a cranium fossil turns up in a cave near the village of Maba
this dated between 140,000 - 119,000 years ago but stone tools were not unearthed.

Dali:

this is an open-air site in south central China (Shaanxi)
it has a deep deposit of silts, sand and gravel
at the bottom there is a hominid skull found in 1978
this was found by geologist Liu Shuntang.
the skull is complete but lacks a jaw
the layer where it was found has been dated several times

the consensus gives it 230,000 years ago or old as 300,000
five hundred stone artifacts were also found there
some have features common with that of those of Zhoukoudian

Significance

there has been a lot of academic debate about this finding
initially it was classified as homo erectus
many has suggested it is closer to modern humans
it seems to be an intermediary form between homo erectus and homo sapiens; it seems to be dated at 70,000 years of age
this supports the multi-regional hypothesis
other sites with this kind of skull are found at many other sites
these are dated as between 400,000 & 120,000 years ago

people assume that modern Chinese population evolved from these early hominid forms
the recent scholarship suggests a different hypothesis that competes with the traditional one
genetic studies offer the position that the Chinese share a common ancestral lineage
this lineage comes from Africa
Peking Man and other forms of archaic humans are evolutionary cul-de sacs
they died out only to be replaced by the wave of homo sapiens that emerged in Africa
this was between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago and migrated to Asia
this is the “total replacement hypothesis”)s
they overtook the local Asian archaic modern humans
contemporary Chinese people are a recently evolved group of people from Africa.
the “multi-regional hypothesis” rejects the “out of Africa” hypothesis
it argues that homo erectus evolved independently into modern form
this is based on similar anatomical traits.
homo erectus is found at various sites

Modern Humans:

there are close to one hundred sites of the late Paleolithic period in China
this contains evidence for the presence of homo sapiens
the period is between 40,000 and 10,000 years
yet something is missing - the stretch between 100,000 and 40,000 years ago.

Stone Artifacts

during the Paleolithic period early humans engaged in the creation of various artifacts
these are tools made of stones and bones
those made in China are different from the types made in other large areas
this would be Africa and Europe during the same time period
so they do not seem to have evolved from the West
they were independently designed and manufactured
scrapers, choppers, points, and burins are the type of stone tools of Paleolithic China
these were found at Nihewan and Zhoukoudian.

The Neolithic Revolution:

agriculture in China began sometime around 8500 -8000 BCE
it involved the cultivation of millet and rice in the Yellow and Yangzi River valleys
at that time there also occurred the domestication of dogs, pigs, and chickens.
the settling of the hunter gatherer led to the emergence of village life
this gradually developed into towns and then into city states
the Neolithic revolution brought about a population explosion
this supplied the growing demand for farm labour
small number of neolithic villages (c. 9000-8000 BCE) have been discovered
this is at two major valleys
hundreds of villages from the later period (7500-7000 BCE) have been found
those of the later period (c. 6000 BCE) are in the thousands.
neolithic China has some unique characteristics
its sedentary lifestyle emerged after the cultivation of cereal
in the Middle East (the earliest centre of agriculture) it took place before farming
the picture above is a Yangshao painted pottery storage jar - Banshan phase (2600 -2300 BCE)
in the Middle East the rise of pottery took place after the advent of agriculture
in China, pottery was invented simultaneously in several places by hunter-gatherers.

The Neolithic Culture

thousands of pieces of Neolithic art have been discovered
these are objects made from ceramic, stone, and bone
the most common art of the period consists of painted potter
this climaxed with the Yangshao culture (c.5000-2700 BCE) and other cultures in the north.
stylized incisions of plants, animals, fish & the famous taotie mask are features of this culture.
the rise of agriculture brought about cultural changes
the division of labour increased and with it came artisanship
this led to state owned industries
jade, ceramics, and textile manufacturing were the result
pottery was invented by the hunter-gatherers
it was the farmers of the Neolithic period that produced refined forms of pottery
this type required the use of the potter's wheel and the use of the kiln
society became stratified
it led to the emergence of the state with its political underpinnings.

Cultural Sites:

the transition from paleolithic to the neolithic is one of settlement
this is due to the increase of food created by the emergence of agriculture
this was because climate change
this was when the Yellow and Yangzi River valleys warmed up
with that warmth seed collecting began in earnest.
the neolithic period is the transition from being nomadic cave dwellers to becoming villagers
along with agriculture came the domestication of farm animals - dogs, pigs, chickens
this grouping of larger social units in one area laid the foundation for a civilization
thousands of neolithic sites demonstrate that during the period of 10,000 to 2,000 BCE
the earliest Neolithic sites are in the following southern provinces:
Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Guizhou
these are dated between 11,000 and 10,000 BCE
the north is 8500 - 7000 BCE (Xinglongwa culture) and 7000 and 5000 BCE (Xinle culture)
in the north, central, and coastal regions the settlements are found to have emerged later
the most intense settlements are from the Yellow River basins
also along its tributaries and the southern areas where rice was highly productive
this was in the wet and humid climate
the north (Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi) was basically a millet growing dual culture
Cishan-Peiligang (6500-4900 BCE), is where red and brown coloured pottery was a feature.

Yangshao Culture

the best known culture - Yangshao - from that area later emerged (5000-3000 BCE)
it contained over a hundred sites covering a larger territory from Gansu to Qinghai.
in the south we have the cord-marked pottery often found in limestone caves
this identifies a culture located in Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guangxi.
the best documented Yangshao culture was named after a village in northern Henan
this is where in 1921 J. Gunnar Andersson had found a fragment of painted pottery.
its famous site is at Banpo, near Xi’an
it was built on a huge circular site surrounded by a deep ditch
it was occupied from about 4800 - 3600 BCE
it was a village of some 45 houses grouped in clusters suggesting kinship units
the huts like tombs were similar in size and shape
the only difference was the communal building
its inhabitants cultivated millet and kept pigs and dog
the millet was supplemented by hunting and fishing
hemp was used for fabrics

their pottery of various shapes - bowls, jugs, vases
it was painted red & had incisions
those designs were that of fish, animal, plants, and human faces, & symbols
these markings that may have identified clans or lineages
these markings were an early stage in the development of Chinese characters
later markings consisted of waves and spirals
these were characteristic of later Miaodigou culture (3900-3000 BCE)
deriving from the Yangshao culture there emerged three cultures:
a) Majiayao,
b) Banshan
c) Machang (3300 - 2050 BCE) in Gansu & Qinghai
deriving from the Majiayao culture there emerged two cultures:
the Qijias culture (2250 -1900 BCE)
the Huoshaogou culture (1800-1600 BCE)
their production of objects and jewelry that were made of copper, bronze, gold, and silver
the Dawenkou culture (5000 - 2500 BCE) which was scattered throughout a number of areas - - this was in Shangdong, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, and Liaoning
it seemed to have been somewhat stratified
this was suggested from the objects buried with the rich strata of society
these objects were jade , stone, pottery, bracelets
the eastern cultures of Majiabang (5000 - 3500 BCE) and Hemudu (5000 - 3300 BCE) - (Jiangsu & north Zhejiang) depended much on fishing and the production of aquatic plants, especially rice
the pottery of Majiabang was a combination of red and brown while Hemudu was black.
their descendants are
a) the Songze culture (4000 - 3000 BCE
b) the Qinglian’gang (4800 - 3600 BCE)
the Hongshan culture (3600 - 2000 BCE) derived from the Xinle culture
its development can be traced to Liaoning and Inner Mongolia
the Hongshan culture is well known for its production of jade
it became highly developed during the period of the Liangzhu culture (3300 - 2200 BCE)
the Liangzhu developed along the eastern coastal areas (Zhejiang & Jiangsu)
jade is prominent (greatly found in tombs) in this cultural area
this suggests that an elite group administered a political and/or religious power.
the Daxi culture (5000 - 3000 BCE) developed along the Yangzi jiang valley
this is adjacent to Sichuan, Hubei, and Hunan
it was known for its production of stone objects with red, brown, and dark pottery
further south you had
a) the Dapenkeng culture (5000 - 2500 BCE
b) the Shixia culture (2865 - 2480 BCE) and both are producers of jade.

Longshan Culture

in 1928 at Chengziyai in north-west Shandong a different kind of pottery was discovered
it was that of the Longshan culture (3000 - 2000 BCE)

the pottery was not painted and was usually thinner than that of the Yangshao
sometimes the pottery was elevated on a circular foot or on tripod legs
at first scholars believed that the culture of Longshan was that of eastern China
they thought that the Yangshao was that of the Central Plains
when the Miaodigou site was excavated Yangshao was found to be below Longshan
it was then believed that Longshan derived from Yangshao
other excavations suggested it derived from Dawenkou
it developed separately and gradually spread itself to the Central Plains
this was when its painted pottery was on the decline
the cultures that would later dominate the Central Plains region came from Longshan
that development would usher in the Bronze Age

Transition & Change

the basic ideas of kinship, authority, religion, and art began to emerge
they emerged in these distinct regional cultures
becoming more populated a civilizing experiment emerged and developed.
organization, division of labour, and self-expression made its appearance.
the traditional belief is that the neolithic culture had its origins in one area
this would be that of northern China (Peiligang culture)
it would spread itself out from the core of the Yellow River valley & the Central Plains
it would assimilate the entire area known today as China.
in recent years archaeological discoveries have revealed a more complex view
various cultures made the successful transition from food-gathering to food production
that success led to the appearance of pottery and the further development of other industries
this would be the production of jade, ceramic, and textiles
this led to an emerging economy and an intensification of social engagement
this, in turn, led to stratification
politicization of communities as multicultural communities co-existed and interacted.
these cultures differed from one another in spite of similarities
both the northern cultures and the southern cultures hunted, fished, and harvested plants; both - the north and the south made use of pottery
they both used tools made from wood and stone
they both buried their dead
the Dawenkou and the Majiayo both buried their dead with ceremonial objects
the former elite were buried with a greater diversified collection of pottery
the latter’s elite were buried with a greater number of similar kinds of pottery
in the south, the Majiabang build their houses close to water
they built them either on high ground or on built mounds
the Hemudu built their houses differently along water wooden houses on piles
the Hemudu’s pottery was painted black with incised geometric designs
they also has incisions of birds, fish, or trees
the Majiabang’s pottery was of a reddish-brown colour.

Agricultural Centres:

there are two dominant agricultural centres that emerged early on:
the Yellow River basin
the Yangzi River basin,
each had sub-divisions giving them a unique ecological and cultural identity.

the settlements of the north Yellow River basin has its roots in the Cishan and Peiligang
these cultures had semi-subterranean houses, including storage pits
this suggested they had a sedentary lifestyle
similar features were found in the cultures of Houli (east) and the Xinglongwa (northeast)
this was where millet was found at the excavation site
at this period the sites also showed that dogs and pigs were domesticated.
rice became the staple food of central and southern areas
for the Pengoushan culture, hunting and fishing,the domestication of plants were the activities
this is where houses raised on wooden posts have been discovered; t
the predominance of these types of dwellings are associated with the Hemudu culture.

Neolithic Technology:

the success of farming went hand in hand with the production of jade, ceramics, and textiles
the success of farming was connected to the emergence of farming technologies
the rice paddy field in the middle of the Yangzi River valley shows the mastery of irrigation
the success of having learned how to better select seeds for cultivation was also apparent
before agriculture was invented pottery had emerged - the cord-markings type

later with the advent of agriculture the technology improved greatly with an aesthetic appeal.
by 9800 BCE painted ceramic bowls , vases, and, dishes, made their appearances
this was in the Yellow River valley thanks to the early development of kilns
the potter’s wheel was used both in the south and in the north by 9000 BCE.

the main artifact of the period was jade
its manufacturing tradition goes back to 10,000 BCE in northeast
later these forms morphed into shapes dragons, eagles, and circular designs
this was in Hongshan ca. 3500 BCE)
burial sites suggest that they were owned by the wealthy
large number of jade were found in tombs
they seemed to be symbols of the authority & status of elite groups
these elite groups held political, religious, and administrative powers
later they were to appear in the two river valleys along with disks, combs , rings, and tubes
they were made of tremolite, actinolite, chrysotile, and agate belonging to the wealthy.
another achievement of Neolithic China was the production of silk
this originated in north China
it was a Chinese monopoly until silkworms found their way out of China in the 6th century
evidence of this production of silk has been traced back to about 8300 BCE in Hemudu
remains of silk threads were discovered in both the Yellow & Yangzi River valleys
this was dated at about 7000 -6700 BCE.

Neolithic Villages:

the growth of grain was quite substantial
we see this from the Jiangzhai storage pits (Wei River valley)
it contained 297 of them dated from 5000 - 4000 BCE
just a 120 of these pits are enough to hold close to three million liters of grain
this is enough to feed more than 10,000 people within a year
villages have been estimated to anywhere between 300 and 400 people
during later periods villages grew larger and larger
tea and hemp were produced
the silkworm industry flourished along ceramics and the appearance of bronze..

these villages underwent developmental phases
during the 6th and 5th millennium BCE, houses were simple
they were designed to be round or square, surrounding a communal courtyard
during the late neolithic period villages surrounded themselves with pounded earth walls,
this included moats, especially the large ones.
changes within the walls also changed
row house type of units began to emerge under one house
this suggested the living quarters of a nuclear family.

The Emergence of Civilizations:

the Neolithic revolution was the pre-condition for the emergence of civilization
settlements because of farming brought about mergers of villages into towns
towns merged into cities.
civilization first began some time between 4000 & 3000 BCE
this was in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in an area - Mesopotamia
a little later in civilization emerged in the valley of the Nile River in Egypt
this was followed by that of the valley in India and the Yellow River basin in China.

civilization is characterized as having common features:
a) the appearance of urban centres
b) architecture
c) hierarchical societies
d) the invention of writing.

this period is often referred to as the Bronze Age
it took place at the same time as the emergence of the knowledge of smelting tin and copper
this is to create a stronger and more useful metal -bronze.

The City State

the political institution of Bronze Age China was the city -state
it was a walled city that had public building and, residences of the aristocracy
they supported the ruler surrounded by Neolithic tribal villages.
the power of the ruler came from
a) his access to the deities
b) support from the aristocratic families
c) kinship
d) control of the bronze industry.
the Shang state was able to mobilize thousands of people for a number of projects:
a) military campaigns
b) construction of large tombs for the royal family
c) clearing the land for the building of walls and roads

The Shang State

the Shang was a confederation of lineages
it had small political units within a network of shifting alliances
through diplomacy, culture, and religion, the Shang held on to hegemony
it also did this through warfare

their armies could be as large as 10,000 men on rare occasions
employing chariots was the main technique in fighting during the later period.

Zhengzhou

the Shang city at Zhengzhou is a large walled site
it is below the modern city of Zhengzhou in Henan
the settlement was excavated in the 1950s
it is thought to be an early Shang capital - possibly Bo or Ao.

Zhengzhou was occupied by Shang kings and its aristocracy
it was surrounded by larger population
two phases accounts for the occupation of Zhengzhou from between 1500 & 1300 BCE.
a) the earlier Erligang was the period of the construction of the city walls
b) the later period (upper Erligang) is associated with the later use of the site.

The Walled City

the walls are rectangular
the perimeter reaches 4 miles (7 km)
there is a layered pounded earth sloping wall of a massive width
today most are underground but those that are visible reach 16 feet.
within the walls there are remains of temples & ritual areas
these were originally areas of royal and aristocratic palaces
twenty pounded earth platform foundations are in an elevated section
there are sub-divisions of rooms and corridors

there is evidence of ritual structures such as human & animal sacrifices.
in one pit archaeologists retrieved almost 100 young men
skeletons of 92 sacrificial dogs were found in nearby pits
houses were discovered in the parts of the city.

Beyond the Walls

nearby there are cemeteries, houses of common people, workshops & other things
four burial grounds have been found
tombstone to be small, hence they are not of the kings
also found are work areas: bone & pottery workshops, kilns & bronze foundries
hoards of bronzes have been excavated outside the city

Anyang

a large area near modern Anyang is the location of Yin (Yinxu)
this is the last capital of the Shang
antique bronzes & divination bones have been excavate

the excavation at Anyang was due to the investigation of oracle bones in 1928
according to traditional records Yin was the ritual-political centre of the Shang dynasty for 12 kings, ruling for about 350 years (c. 1300-1050 BCE)

The Archaeological Site

the inscriptions on the oracle bones confirm the presence at Yin of the last nine of these kings
inscriptions also tell us of the four phases of occupation of the site.
the site is quite extensive - four and half miles; most outside the defensive wall that dates to an earlier period
perhaps they thought that the city be a uniting city ritual centre rather than a political capital with definite borders

there is definitely a core centre with ritual centres and cemeteries
two large parts of Anyang core are
the Xiaotun palatial site south of the Human River
the Xibeigang royal cemetery north of the river.

Xiaotun Palatial Site:

near modenr Xiatun an elevated area is surrounded on two sides by a moat
it is defended on the remaining sides by the Huan River
the area contains 50 palace or temple foundations
it all contains a large deposit of oracle bones, human sacrifices & workshops
the building is arranged into three groups - north, west, south
the north group may have been a residential zone
the remaining two are interspersed with sacrificial burials of animals, humans, chariots
southwest, just outside the moat there is the burial tomb of Fu Hao.
it is the only undisturbed aristocratic burial of Anyang

the archaeological exploration of the Shang began at Anyang in 1928
this was the last Shang capital
by the time of the Japanese occupation in 1937, 55,000 square yards was excavated
this was in eleven places
the site covers 14 square miles on both sides of the Huan River
it included important sites such as Xiatun
Xiatun was known for the discoveries of
a) palaces
b) sacrificial pits
c ) earth-pounded platforms
d) oracle bones,
e) bronze workshops
f) elite burials

The Royal Cemetery at Xibeigang

Xibeigang was known for the discoveries of 14 large tombs,
four of them were graves of Shang kings.

this place is located across the river from the Xiaotun palatial area
there are eleven large tombs in this place
they are arranged in two clusters - west (7 burials & unfinished pit) & east (4 burials and one pit)
eight tombs have access ramps on four sides (cross-shaped)
the burials range in length 65 and a half ft. to 260 feet
the shaft reaches a depth of 32 ft.
surrounding the large tombs there are over 1400 sacrificial victims.
some were formally b.uried, others brutally killed
these burials suggest that they belonged to the kings and queens that ruled Anyang
one could be King Wuding
one of the unfinished pits may have been for Zhouxin, the last Shang king.

another achievement of Neolithic China was the production of silk
the exact procedure has been practised in China throughout history
the worms eat about 100 pounds of mulberry leaves to produce about 15 pounds of cocoon
from the 15 pounds of cocoon comes one pound of raw silk.
this household industry began in Neolithic times in North China
it remained a Chinese monopoly until silkworms were smuggled to the West (6th century)