Ancient China

The Three Ancient Dynasties

The Xia Dynasty:

Traditional Legends of the Sage-Rulers

according to Chinese myths human beings had their origin in parasites
these were on the body of the Creator
after his death a succession of sage rulers introduced inventions institutions
the first sage was Fuxi – he domesticated animals and instituted marriage.
the next sage ruler was Shennong – he introduced agriculture, medicine, and trade.
next sage-ruler - Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor (invented writing, ceramics, & the calendar).
centuries later came the next ruler, Emperor Yao
he introduced flood controls
he decided that his son was unworthy to be his successor
instead he chose a humble sage called Shun.
the reigns of Yao and Shun are considered to be the Golden Age of Chinese history.
these acts of abdication are examples of a tradition of selflessness
it questioned whether hereditary rule is desirable
Shun awarded the succession to his faithful minister Yu
it is at this point that China’s prehistory begins to merge with history.
Yu, whose reign began in 2205 BCE allegedly founded the Xia dynasty
his rule marks the end of the period of righteous abdication
the principle of dynastic rule now falls under moral justification

China's Ancient Dynasties:

the traditional history of China includes the three ancient dynasties:
a) the Xia (2205-1766 BCE),
b) the Shang (1766-1050 BCE)
c) the Zhou (1050-256)

technically history begins with recorded history;
pre-history is the period for which there are no written records.
up until the 1920s scholars believed that the first two (Xia & Shang) were legendary.
with the discovery of the Shang the outlook has changed
perhaps the Xia actually did exist as a legitimate dynasty
it is purely conjecture at this point.
excavations of Anyang uncovered the ruins of a city
it was surrounded by a wall that had been a capital of the Shang
other cities have since been excavated

the discovery of the "oracle bones" have led to further speculation
this is about the origins of the Chinese language and the emergence of religion
it has also given scholars a good understanding of the Shang Dynasty.

The Archaeological Records of the Xia Dynasty:

the Xia dynasty may have existed between approximately 2200 and 1750 BC
this is along the Yellow River near Luoyang and
to the North of this area, in the Fen River valley.
the pottery discoveries suggest that the Xia culture derived from Longshan.
the most important site identified with the Xia is Erlitou
in Henan palace-like buildings and tombs have been uncovered
here the earliest bronze vessels have been found.

this excavation of 1922 suggests that Erlitou may have been a capital of the Xia dynasty.
the Erlitou culture was widespread in the region of northwest Henan.
it was a direct successor to the Longshan Black Pottery culture

The Shang Dynasty:

between 3500 & 2000 BCE farming communities got closer to each other
they developed features characteristic of civilization
special craftsmen produced pottery drinking cups, jars and bowls
some were on stems or three legs.
these were used for religious ceremonies
jade was of great importance & was widely distributed
often the rulers were buried with them.

soon competition led to warfare
it also led to the building of large defensive walls made of stamped earth.
around 1800 BCE most of northern China was united under the Shang dynasty.

The State Capitals: Archaeological Findings

the second of the ancient dynasties was the Shang (1766-1122 BCE.)
it was once believed that the three ancient dynasties were successive
but the Shang dynasty was already a strong entity before it overthrew the Xia.
the three dynasties overlapped both in time and in territory.
the Shang state had a series of capitals
Zhengzhou and Anyang were the most important ones
Zhengzhou was the capital in the early or middle period of the dynasty
Anyang was occupied around 1300-1050 BCE.
at Zhengzhou, a city wall of about 4 miles long enclosed a large settlement
the wall and the buildings inside the wall use the “stamped earth” technique.
discoveries indicate that Shang society was highly organized and socially stratified
it confirms a similar impression made from the findings at Anyang
outside Anyang, at Xiaotun they discovered a ceremonial and administrative centre .
at Xibeigang, two miles north of Xiaotun, 11 large cruciform graves have been found
they may belong to the 11 Shang monarchs, recorded as having reigned at Anyang.
in 1928 archaeologists began the scientific excavations at Anyang.
after 1950, the earlier Shang capital at Zhengzhou was uncovered.
in these Shang capital cities were royal palaces and upper-class residence
they were of the post-and-beam construction on stamped-earth platforms,
they were built in the basic architectural styles of Beijing’s Forbidden City.
Anyang had the stamped-earth foundations, as hard as cement
of 53 buildings, many were of stone-pillar bases
subterranean pit houses nearby were used as storage
the aristocracy had the services of artisans
artisans were specialists in the art of bronze metallurgy, pottery, and crafts.

The Shang State:

the Shang rulers performed an important ritual role
they were also involved with administering the state
they were served by officials who had specialized functions.
the rulers were supported by aristocratic clans (families)
they had kinship or marriage connections.
aristocratic society practised military skills and fought using horse chariots.
the king had the right to demand services from the clan leaders
these included labour services and military duties.
Shang rulers & aristocratic supporters waged aggressive campaigns against their neighbours. - in this way, they were able to obtain prisoners and loot.
the Shang rulers established new towns and the opening of new lands for farming.
they extended their authority along the Yellow River to the Wei valley and to the north.

the Shang also established relations with a state called Shu
this may refer to a culture that had developed independently in Sichuan.
the economic basis of the Shang was agriculture,
they cultivated millet - it was their most important crop
the area of the North China Plain was warmer and more moist than today
the area was well forested.

The Oracle Bones:

much of the information on Shang society comes from their inscriptions
they were made on the shoulder blades of oxen (scapulimancy)
they were less common on the shells of tortoises (plastromancy)
here was a time when they were referred to as “dragon bones”
they were grounded up for medicinal uses.

in 1899 it was noted that Chinese pharmacists were selling these
they were called “dragon bones” and were inscribed in archaic characters.
by the late 1920’s private buyers had traced these “oracle bones” to a site near Anyang

in 1928 archaeologists began scientific excavations of the last Shang capital at Anyang
this continued until Japan attacked China in 1937
after 1950 an earlier Shang capital was found near the present day Zhengzhou.
these Shang capital cities contain royal palaces
they had upper-class residences of post-and-beam construction on stamped-earth platforms,
at Anyang, they found the foundations of 53 buildings with subterranean pit houses
they were probably uses as storage houses and service quarters.
the aristocracy seemed to have made used of artisans
they were specialists in the development of bronze metallurgy, pottery, and other crafts
the bronzes were never surpassed in craftsmanship
the Shang king was served by diviners (shamans ?) who handled the writing system
they took the auspices by scapulimancy
by putting a fire to the bones, cracks were created
these were interpreted as the advice of the ancestors
then, they would inscribe the advice on the bones
much of the information we have on the Shang society comes from these inscriptions. -
over 150,000 fragments of Shang “oracle bones” have been identified
these have provided a major source of evidence about the Shang state.

the discovery of these oracle bones bones was at the turn of the 20th century
these inscriptions are records of divination, performed by the kings of the Shang Dynasty.
heating the bones with fire would produce cracks on the bones which were "read" by diviners
this practice had its origins during the Neolithic period
during the Shang period only flat bones (from tortoises and cattle)were used.
the shape of the cracks were given interpretations -
they indicated a deity's reply to a question posed -
the king made the final prognostication
the inscriptions (originating around 1250 BCE) was a record of the process
a large majority of the 48,000 currently published inscriptions deal with sacrificial rites
the oracle bones offer a variety of topics
they offer scholars and historians knowledge of Shang society and culture
questions were addressed to deities, nature gods,and ancestral gods
it was to seek answers to the following topics:
a) weather conditions,
b) astronomic phenomena,
c) military campaigns,
d) political alliances,
e) the ruler's illnesses,
f) the consort's childbirth,
g) the establishment of new settlements
h) the prospects of hunting.

the practice of divination of this sort was abandoned by the Zhou kings
this probably indicated the confidence of making decisions without the help of deities.
many of the inscriptions relate to future events
they have been translated as questions addressed to an oracle
recently it has been argued that the inscriptions are not questions
they are statements or predictions
the divination process formed part of the sacrificial rite.
once the bones were inscribed, a heated bronze tool was applied
the cracks that appeared were interpreted as a response to the question or prediction.
some of these inscriptions related to the actions of the king and his allies
this gave scholars information about the organization of the Shang state.

the inscriptions use a vocabulary of more than 3,000 different graphs and
this includes a dating system based on a 10-day week and a 60-day cycle.
the bones reveal to us several things:
a) that the Shang aristocracy lived a superior life,
b) they fought using horse chariots,
c) they hunted for sport
d) they performed rites and ceremonies,
e) they were served by scribes and artisans
f) they were supported by the agriculture of the surrounding village peasants
these peasants lived in these subterranean dwelling pits
Shang society was highly stratified.

here some examples of inscriptions:

The Power of Di:

a) “Will Di perhaps send down drought upon us?”

b) “Will Di, bring disaster to our harvest? Will Di not bring disaster to our harvest? The king prognosticated, saying, “Di shall not bring disaster”

These inscriptions illustrate that no subject concerned the king more than the success of the crops, rightly so, since Shang society was agricultural.

Other examples that illustrate the power of Di:

c) “Will Di perhaps bring an end to this city?”

d) “If the king establishes a walled town, will Di show approval?”

e) “Shall we sacrifice two dogs to Di’s envoy Wind?”

Natural Deities:

f) “Shall we make a burnt offering to Cloud Di?”

g) “If we, perhaps, perform a fire sacrifice to Snow, will there be a great rain?”

h) “Shall we pray for harvest to the Yellow River?”

i)“Is it the Yellow River that is harming the king?”

Ancestral Spirits:

j) “Is the High Ancestor Shang-jia who is preventing the rain?”

k) “Should we protect the king’s eyes against Grandmother Ji”

l) “Is it Father Yi who is hurting the king’s tooth?”

Military Affairs, Hunting, Agriculture, & the King’s Ritual Leadership:

m) The king made cracks and divined: We shall hunt at Ji; coming and going there shall be no disaster. The king prognosticated, saying, “It is extremely auspicious.” Acting on this we captured 41 foxes and 8 hornless deer.”

n) “The king shall go and lead the multitudes in planning grain at Qiong.”

Examples are from Robert Eno, “Deities and Ancestors in Early Oracle Inscriptions” in Donald S. Lopez, ed. Religions of China in Practice, (Princeton: NJ, Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 41-51

The Shang Bronzes:

the Neolithic period saw a rise in the production of art in general
this offers us a glimpse into the spiritual world of the pre-historic-population
the findings that are most prized and highly regarded are the bronze vessels and implements
many were made for ceremonial purposes.
knowledge of metallurgy was a gradual process in China

it was the king who controlled the production and use of bronze
the extraction of metal ore and the manufacture of bronze objects were a major industry,
it was an industry that employed a large amount of skilled craftsmen.
a great level of sophistication was reached which produced complex bronze vessels
this was centred at the Erlitou site
large quantities of them was not achieved until about 1500 BCE.

metal production was a late-comer to China
other civilizations had already established their metallurgical industries
these were in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus valley
but in China the scale of production exceeded those of other civilization.
the technology required sophisticated specialization
these were mining, casting into ingots, transportation, and casting into vessels
this could only be achieved by a state-run industry under the auspices of the Shang court.
both Anyang and Zhengzhou were production sites during the early period.
bronze was used at various times for weapons, armour, and chariot fitting
it was also used for ceremonial rituals.
the earliest bronze vessels have been found at Elliott
important finds of bronze vessels were made at Zhengzhou and Anyang
these were the two Shang capitals.
these vessels had a ritual function - for sacrificial meats heating wine
many of these vessels are decorated with stylized surface decorations
he most famous motif is the taotie - a monster mask intended to avert evil.

jade was also used for ritual purposes, as it had been at the Longshan culture.
two jade forms were common:
a pierced disk known as bi
a tube of square cross section known as cong.
Shang kings were buried in large pit
it would require the labour of hundreds of men to excavate.
their corpses were placed in wooded coffins & were surrounded by grave goods
on the ramps, leading to the bottom of the pit lay human bodies and horses
these human victims,( prisoners of war) had sometimes been beheaded.

Fu Hao:

Fu Hao, the consort of a Shang King,Wuding (r. 1324-1266 BCE), died in 1250 BCE,
her tomb was discovered intact in 1976

it contained about 200 bronze vessels, some in the shape of animals

also 1600 objects were buried with her

this included jade , pottery, bronzes, cowrie shells, ivory beakers etc …

also 6 dogs and 16 men, women, and children were buried with her.

the bronzes in her tomb are larger than those found in the graves of aristocrats
this suggested that Shang society was stratified.
like many of the king’s wives (most wives were relegated to just domestic duties),
she played an important role in government
she was an army general and led many campaigns.

Shang Religion:

the oracle bones, bronze vessels, and burial practices gives us insight into the Shang religion.
the Shang people worshipped many deities
most of them were royal ancestors
some were nature spirits
others were probably derived from popular myths or local cults.
it had been an assumption that the Shang religion had a single supreme deity
he is referred to as Di, part ancestral figure and part a natural force
he presided at the apex of the Shang pantheon.
recent studies has rejected the idea of Di as a high god
it seems in the Shang religion Di was the term used to refer collectively to “the gods”
or he was some impartial deity with the exclusive right to give out orders to other powers
it was only under the Zhou that the idea of a supreme god emerges.
from the tombs it is clear that the Shang believed in an afterlife
divination may have been addressed to departed ancestors.

The Bureaucratization of Religion

the Shang people regulated their relations to deities according to a set of rules
five standard rites were performed in a sequence for each of the major ancestors
communicating with them was not random
it was scheduled and regulated according to their 10 day week.
as seen with the oracle bones divination was highly regulated
it had specific set questions,
it had careful recordings of questions and answers
it was carefully preserved
the regularization became more pronounced as the dynasty continued along
this tendency became ever more regulated with the next dynasty

The Fall of the Shang

the details surrounding the collapse of the Shang are somewhat obscured
very little is known about the ruler prior to the last Shang ruler - Zhouxin
he is generally presented as the ultimate monster leader.
the Shang state seemed have decreased in size
the names of many former allies and dependencies appear often in the early descriptions\
but they disappear in the inscriptions of the last 50 years of Shang rule
this goes from from 600 names to 7
the hunting records suggest they now hunted only near the capital.
most of the textual sources demonize the last ruler
Zhouxin was viewed as an arrogant and negligent ruler, inventing cruel forms of torture etc …
his explains the eventual dissent of the Shang allies
also King Wen of Zhou organized a coalition
he expanded eastward & approached the Shang territory
Wen died but soon his son, King Wu, led the assault on the Shang
Zhouxin was defeated, committed suicide.
the Shang dynasty remains a turning point in the history of China
many of the characteristics of Chinese civilization can be traced to the Shang
the most notable is writing;
others are
a) ancestor worship,
b) bronze casting,
c) calendar keeping

the Shang marks the start of the synthesis of social, political, and religious power systems
they remained a central feature of Chinese civilization
later these features were to undergo modifications.

Recapitulation:

in this development the Xia and the Shang begin to take a tangible form
this is what they tell us about China’s origins
1
there seems to have been a smooth transition from the innumerable Neolithic villages of the Longshan culture to the Bronze Age capital cities of the three Dynasties, of which can be viewed as successive stages of a single cultural development.
2
by looking at the tools and weapons, the pots and vessels, the domestication of crops and animals, the architectural layout of settlement and burials, and the evident practices of religion and government, we begin to see a high degree of cultural homogeneity and continuity.
one dynasty succeeded another through warfare
there is no evidence of any invasion from an “outside” culture.
3
the Xia, Shang, and Zhou seem to have co-existed
they were centred in three different areas.
the Shang and then the Zhou became the dominant centre of ancient North China.
these ancient capitals testify to the power of kingship
this was based on sedentary, land-locked agriculture
it was not based on mobile waterborne trade with other areas.

The Beginnings of a Central Authority:

the deposits of the Yangshao and Longshan types of pottery are found in different areas
this would be in half a dozen or more areas on the North Plain
this includes along the Yellow River and Lower Yangzi
this shows the differences of local cultures
contacts among these Neolithic farming villages grew
this produced a broader government from a central capital.
family lineages, derived from large tribal clans, set up their separated wall towns
the oracle bones do name about a thousand towns.
lineages established relations by marriage headed by a patriarch.
the making of bronze coincided with the rise of the first central government
this was during the Xia and Shang dynasties over a broad area
only a strong authority could ensure the mining of ore.
the making ritual vessels of bronze had several implications:
a royal authority was concerned with rituals as an aspect of power
it was able to assign manpower to the onerous task of mining ore and refining metals.
in the Xia and Shang the ruling family made use of elaborate and dramatic rituals
this was to confirm their power to rule
they would communicate with the spirits of the ancestors to secure their help and guidance.
the shaman would be aided by his power animal
it was considered to have a totemic relation to the ancestor.
these were represented on the Shang bronze vessels by animal designs
a good example is the symmetrical and bilateral animal masks (taotie).
by practising a religious cult of the ancestors, local rulers made legitimate their authority
some became lords over groups of towns
one group would merge with another until a single ruling dynasty could emerge in an area