Ancient China: 2020

THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHINA

INTELLECTUAL LIFE

prior to imperial unification there was a formative period of Chinese intellectual tradition
there was competition between a number of thinkers
they tried to find an answer or remedy to the socio-political turmoil
they wanted to lay down an ideological foundation for a unified empire.

the crisis of the Zhou world led to an unprecedented upsurge of intellectual activity
this was the age of the “Hundred Schools of Thought
this was marked by a period of freedom of thought
it was not suppressed by political or religious orthodoxies.

thinkers competed for the patronage of the rulers
they went from court to court in search of employment
their remedies consisted of the following options:
a) harsh authoritarianism
b) anarchist individualism
c) support of laissez-faire economy of state monopolies
d) blatant militarism
e) radical pacifism.

Chinese thought was dominated by political & practical concerns
it was no interested in speculative philosophy or ontological questions
doctrines had to be convincing but practical
unanimously they advocated “all under Heaven” as the only solution
no one ever suggested independence of his natal state
the monarchical system was the only acceptable form of political organization
no alternative was ever proposed
individuality should reflect one’s abilities, not pedigree.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND:

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are the three main influential religions of China
there is a background out of which these ideas emerged, especially Daoism.

early beliefs in China consisted of a mixture of several elements
some of these, such as the belief in spirits can be traced back more than 3000 years.
the following elements provide a basis for later developments in Chinese religion
this is especially true of Daoism

Spirits:

early Chinese beliefs seem to have been polytheistic and animistic
spirits were believed to be active within elements of nature
these would be water, fire, wind, clouds, trees etc
good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility
bad spirits caused accidents and diseases.
disturbances from nature, such as earthquakes and droughts were punishment from spirit
this was due to human failings but harmony could be restored through rituals and sacrifice.

Tian:

during the Shang dynasty the omnipotent power was believed to rule the world
this power was called Shang Di (Shang Ti)
it was thought of as a personal god and capable of being contacted by diviner
it is possible that Shang Ti was the memory of an ancestor
veneration of him was part of the ancient practice of honouring ancestors.
during the Zhou dynasty (c.1122-256 B.C.E.) a new political regime ignored the Shang belief
they began explaining it in terms of a different conception,
Tian (Ti’en)was envisioned as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth
it was also viewed as a moral principle that determines right and wrong.

Veneration of Ancestors:

the same reverence that was shown to the spirits was also naturally felt for ancestors.
ancestors at death became spirits and needed to be placate
this was to ensure their positive influence on living family members.

Seeing Patterns in Nature:

China’s has long and mighty rivers, high mountain chains, distinct seasons
it also has frequent floods, draughts, and earthquakes
these events influenced the Chinese view of the natural world.
to survive they had to learn to work with its nature
they understood its underlying patterns
some of these patterns were easy to discern
this would be the seasons, the paths of the sun, the moon and the cycle of birth and death.
others were more subtle, like the motion of the waves, the ripple of mountain ranges

Yang and Yin:

about 1000 B.C.E. the Chinese thought that the universe expressed itself
this was the opposite but complimentary principles of
light and dark,
night and day,
hot and cold,
sky and earth,
male and female,
sound and silence
the list of the polarity was endless
the names for these complementary principles are yang and yin.
we can think of yin/yang as pulsating energies, like a heartbeat breathing in and out.

Divination:

divination (method employed for knowing the future) was an integral part of Chinese tradition.
the oldest technique was the oracle bones method.
later an elaborate practice was developed that involves the Yi Jing (I Ching)
this was the Book of Changes.
his is an ancient book that interprets life through an analysis of hexagrams
a hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines
there are two kinds; broken (yin) and unbroken lines (yang)
a hexagram is made up of two trigrams
it is `constructed' by tossing yarrow sticks (the traditional method) or coins
you write down the results, beginning with the bottom line.
thus 64 hexagrams are possible
they are thought to represent patterns that can develop in one's life
the Yi Jing gives an interpretation of each of these hexagrams
with the Yi Jing, one can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions about the future.

DAOISM:

Daoism incorporated many of the elements from traditional Chinese beliefs (folk religion),
thus Daoism is like a basket filled with a variety of items:
a) observations about nature
b) philosophical insights
c) guidelines for living
e) exercises for health
f) rituals of protection
g) practices for attaining longevity and inner purity.

Daoism, today, includes ideas and practices both from the early philosophical phase
this also includes aspects from the later development of Daoism as a religion.

it is common to differentiate between
a) the philosophical Taoism that we find in the Tao-te-Ching of about 300 B.C.E
b) the later ritualized Taoism that arose after 100 C.E.
scholars, today, think that philosophical Taoism may have emerged from ritualistic origins
this was the shamanistic tradition)
later ritualistic Daoism is seen as an expression of the philosophical insights of Daoism
this would be in the form of ritualism and ceremonies.

early Daoism was influenced by shamanism
it created literature that was philosophical in orientation.
later it organized and emerged as a religion.

Laozi (Lao-Tzu):

- Daoism as a body of teachings is often traced to a legendary figure name Laozi,

in the traditional story, Laozi's birth (c.600 B.C.E.) resulted from a virginal conception.
according to the legend the child was born old - hence, the name "old child."

- Laozi later became a state archivist or librarian, in the royal city of Luoyang for many years.

tiring of his job, he left his post and carried by an ox, travelled to the far West of China
at the Western border, Laozi was recognized as an esteemed scholar
he was not allowed from crossing to the West until he had written down his teachings
the result was the Daodejing (Tao-te-Ching) , a short work of about 5,000 characters.
after he was finished with the book he was allowed to go through the pass of the mountain
he was never seen again.

Daodejing:

- the Daodejing is the great classic of Daoism,

it is accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture
it is deemed as one of the world's greatest books.

Its title is "the classical book about the Way and it Power"
it is sometimes referred to as the Laozi, after its legendary author
it has had a tremendous impact on Chinese culture.

the 81 short chapters are probably a compilation of the work of many people
it is likely not the work of one person
the text is sometimes repetitious
it has no clear order
it exhibits an intentional lack of clarity
its form is more poetry than prose.

what was the original purpose of the text?
there are several theories:
a) it was meant to be a handbook for rulers, thus its purpose was generally political.
b) it is primarily a book of religious value, leading its adherents to spiritual insights
c) it is seen as a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe and nature
it is all these things taken together
several passages can have several meanings at the same time.

throughout the text there are references to the tao
the book speaks of its nature and operation.
it describes the manner in which people will live if they are in harmony with the dao.
it also offers suggestions for experiencing the dao
it also provides imagery to help describe these things.
so, what is the tao?

the first chapter begins by stating that "the tao that can be told is not the eternal tao."
In other words, there is no way that it can be described or expressed using words
yet the book goes on to tell us that the dao is nameless
it is not any individual thing that has a name -such as a window or door, a person or a bird.
the Tao cannot be named because it has no form
but the dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name
the Daodejing says that the dao is
a) the origin of everything
b) that all things are `manifestations' of the dao.

the dao is the origin of things, it is not the same as the Judeo-Christian-Islamic notion of God
this is because it does not have a personality
it neither care about humans, nor dislikes them - in fact we can't speak of it this way
it only produces humans and the rest of nature
because the dao can make nature move the way it does, it can be called the Way,
or, the rhythm of nature - other terms: the watercourse way (Watts); the `flow' or a process.

to experience the tao, we must leave behind our desire for individuality and things
the dao is a concept that runs counter to everyday concerns
the Daoist way of being or seeing the world is so odd or strange
to some people it may seem like trying to see in the dark.

the Daodejing presents powerful images wherein the tao seems most active and visible
some common images are water, woman, child, valley, darkness.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)

Daoism was enriched by the work of Zhuangzi, who was active around 300 B.C.E.
what we know comes from the writings he left behind.

his personality seems playful, independent, and in love with the fantastic
the book of his writings called the Zhuangzi is composed of seven `inner chapters’
these are thought to be by the author himself
but for the twenty six `outer chapters' the authorship is less certain.

the Zhuangzi, unlike the poetry of the Daodejing contains many whimsical stories
it continues the themes of early Daoist thought
these are:
a) the need for harmony with nature
b) the movement of the Dao in all that happens
c) the pleasure we can gain from simplicity.

it underscores the inevitability of change and the relativity of all human judgements
it also adds to Daoism an appreciation for humour.

the most famous of all the stories tells of Zhuangzi's dream of being a butterfly
in his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know who he was - he was not sure if he was Zhuangzi.
when he woke up he was struck by a question.
am I Zhuangzi dreaming that I am a butterfly or am I a butterfly dreaming that I'm Zhuangzi?
the boundary between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think
that was the idea being implied

the Zhuangzi rejects all barriers
a) that between the ordinary and the fantastic
b) between the normal and the paranormal.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHICAL DAOISM

- the main teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi can be summarized as follows:

Dao:

this is the mysterious reality makes nature what it is and to act the way it does
Dao is primarily the way that nature expresses itself - the natural way.

Wu wei:

the ideal of effortlessness - to have commandments would go against the nature of Daoism.
it does offer recommendations on how to live but they do not come from as divine voice
it comes from nature herself, the model of balance and harmony.
Wu wei - refers to "no action, no strain, no effort
it implies the avoidance of doing things against the grain
or avoiding doing things that are not natural, nor spontaneous
when we look at nature we notice that much of what it does is effortless, it is natural
nature works to accomplish what is necessary and nothing more.

Simplicity:

Daoism encourages people to
a) eliminate whatever is unnecessary and artificial
b) to appreciate the simple and the ordinary
in this sense, Daoism distrusts education
this is because of the inherent complexity and artificiality of education

Gentleness:

because the Taoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war.
the wise person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence.

Relativity:

people see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own concerns
they tend to see things in terms of their divisions: I-you, good-bad, valuable-worthless etc
Daoists think it is necessary to attain a vision of things that sees beyond these opposites.

CONFUCIANISM:

THE TAO IN CONFUCIANISM:

Daoism tries to bring human beings into union with the Tao
we do this through imitating certain qualities in nature - i
a) its harmony, l
b) its lack of strain
c) its flowing mystery.
these ideals and beliefs also influenced Confucius.

there is a difference between Taoist and Confucian notions of the Tao
for Confucians the Dao of primary interest is the Tao between the human world
this is manifested in `right' relationships and in a harmonious society
it was social harmony.

in Daoism, everything is a part of the rhythm of nature - the Dao
in Confucianism, birds and clouds and trees are what they should be
but human beings do not automatically become or remain what they should be.

the sweet innocent and spontaneous child can quickly turn into the selfish child
the Confucian would say that training in virtue is necessary
this is to enable the Dao to manifest itself clearly in the human being.
the Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian text recommends several types of training
it includes training in the cultivation of personal equilibrium and harmony.
Daoists avoid such training,
they feel that formal education has the potential for distorting one’s original state of being
or pure state
Confucians, hold the view that the best training does not contaminate character
in fact by cultivating virtues, it gives it definition and clarity.

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS:

Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E.
this was when when China was not a single empire but a group of small kingdoms.
his name was Kong Qiu (K'ung Ch’iu).
he later became known as Kong Fuzi (K'ung Fu-Tzu) meaning `Master Kong’
he became known in the West by the Latin version of his name
this was created and spread by European Catholic missionaries.

tradition tells that Confucius was from a once-noble family
they had fled at the time of political danger to the state of Lu (south of present-day Beijing).
his father died when he was a child,
his mother raised him as an educated gentleman
he enjoyed chariot riding, archery, and playing the lute
in his teens, he became seriously interested in pursuing scholarship.

he is said to have held a minor government post as tax collector
this was probably to support his mother and his studies.
his mother died when he was in his late teens and he entered into a state of mourning.
when the period of mourning was over, he began his public life teaching.

Confucius always wanted to play an influential part in government
it is possible that, for a time, (about 500-496 B.C.E.) he became a government minister.
Confucius married and is believed to have had a son and daughter
he wandered for about 15 years outside of his home state but eventually returned to Lu
this was to take a somewhat ceremonial post as senior advisor
he died about 479 B.C.E.

CONFUCIAN VIRTUES:

when Confucius was born it was a time of social turmoil
this was because of the disintegration of the feudal system
Confucius saw families suffering from the social disorder
he concluded that society would function properly only if virtues were taught and lived.

the ideals of Confucius were two:
1) he wanted to produce `excellent' individuals who could be social leaders;
2) he wanted to create a harmonious society.

- he believed that these ideals were complementary:

excellent individuals would keep society harmonious
a harmonious society would nurture excellent individuals.

he believed that each human being is capable of being good, refined and even great.
he was convinced that a human being cannot achieve these qualities in isolation
for him, a human being becomes a full person only through the contributions of others
this included fulfilling one's obligations to them
these other people are parents, teachers, aunts and uncles, grandparents, ancestor
they may even be government officials.

Confucius also believed that more than social interaction (which animals have) is needed.
what that `more' is makes ordinary human beings into excellent human beings
these are `superior persons’.
what constitutes that `more’?
what are the sources of human excellent?

excellence comes from the cultivation of an individual's virtues and intellect.
thus education is essential.
for Confucius education meant more than knowledge
it also involved the development of skills in
a) poetry,
b) music,
c) artistic appreciation,
d) manners,
e) religious rituals.
Confucius valued education because it transmitted the lessons of the past into the present
Confucius was convinced that the past provides the models for the present.
Confucius believed that social harmony is established when people play their roles properly.
the sense of responsibility was codified in five great relationships.

THE FIVE RELATIONSHIPS:

in Confucianism, relationships are just as real as any visible objects
human beings are not individuals but interwoven threads of relationships with many people.
for Confucianists human beings are their relationships.

but not all relationships are equal
the level of a relationship may be determined by personal factors
these are friends, or family connections, or
these could be formal social factors, such as age or socioeconomic status
Confucius recognizes this inequality
therefore lists relationships according to a hierarchy, beginning with the most important.

Father-Son:

family is the foundation of society
the relationship between father and son at its core.
this relationship represents all parent-child relationship
the father must be responsible for the education and moral formation of the son
and the son must be respectful and obedient and must care for his father in old age.
the relationship of obligation is mutual and does not end until the death of the father.
the parent-child relationship is fundamental
it can function as the model for similar relationships
these would be that between an employee and an employer.

Elder Brother-Younger Brother:

lots of European languages do not distinguish between an elder and a younger brother.
but the Asian languages have different words for the two kinds of brothers
in their culture the distinction is important
an elder brother must assume responsibility for raising the younger siblings
the younger siblings must be compliant
when a father dies too early, the responsibility of raising the children shifts to the elder son..

Husband-Wife:

each person in this relationship is responsible for the other's care.
in Confucian thought, the relationship is hierarchical
the husband is the authoritative protector
the wife is the protected homemaker and mother.

Friend-Friend:

the relationship between friends, entails serious obligations
a friendship made in youth is expected to last a lifetime
sometimes this is listed as a relationship between an elder person and a younger person
in friendship there is often a certain hierarch
the friends may differ in rank, health, or wealth, or knowledge
one has the responsibility to assist the other friend who is in need depending on status

Ruler-Subject:

sometimes this relationship is listed first but more often it appears last
this reflects the Confucian perspective on the role of a ruler
the ruler must act like the father, assuming responsibility and care for the subjects
for the ruler the subjects are like his children
the father-son relationship is primary in that it is a model for most other relationships.
for Confucians the social order begins in a harmonious home and then extends outward -

the Five Relationships signify that each person must live up to
a) his or her social role
b) social status.
this has been called the rectification of names -
one only needs to consult one's social role and title to know one's duty.

THE CONFUCIAN VALUES:

the virtues most prized by Confucianism are social virtues.
individual uniqueness is expected to be muted, subtle, and considerate of others.

Ren (jen).

the Confucian character fore ren illustrates the meaning by blending two simple pictograph
this is `person' and `two' - the meaning is that we think of the other. T
the term is translated as
sympathy,
empathy,
benevolence,
humaneness,
kindness,
consideration,
thoughtfulness
human-heartedness.

Li:

this word is often translated as `propriety'
this means doing what is appropriate or doing what is appropriate for the situation.
originally li referred to carrying out rites correctly
more generally it means using the proper words and actions for social life
for each situation, there are
a) proper words to say,
b) proper ways to dress
c) correct things to do. I
in the Analects, Confucius says, "To subdue one's self and return to propriety, is perfect virtue." (12,1,1)
it comes down to having and practising good manners - it is putting ren into practice.

Shu:

the usual translation of this term is `reciprocity’
it means answering the following question: How will my action affect the other person?
it is another version of the Golden Rule: “
Do onto others as you would have them do onto you".
the Confucian version is stated in negative terms:
"Do not do onto others what you would not wish done to yourself"

Xiao (hsiao):

this is usually translated as `filial piety' (devotion of a son or daughter to a parent).
it means the devotion that all members have to their entire family.
it encompasses several notions: r
a) remembrance of ancestors,
b) respect for parents and elders,
c) care for children in the family.

Wen:

the term means `culture' and includes all the arts that are associated with civilization.
Confucianists have a special love for poetry and literature
they also have a fondness for calligraphy, painting, and music.
the educated person must have a knowledge of these arts & have an amateur skill in them.

Confucianism stresses other virtues as well
these are:
a) loyalty,
b) consensus,
c) hard work,
d) thrift
e) emotional control.

CONFUCIAN LITERATURE:

Confucius considered himself a transmitter of wisdom
what is considered the literature of Confucianism actually preceded him
it was subsequently edited and added by Confucian scholars.
it is not always possible to separate with certainty the teachings of
a) Confucius,
b) his predecessors
c) his followers.

Confucian literature is divided into the Five Classics and the Four Books.
this includes
a) pre-Confucian works of poetry, history, and divination,
b) the sayings of Confucius and his disciples,
c) the sayings of Mencius
the canon of Confucian literature has varied
it became settled during the Song dynasty (960-1279).

Confucian literature was the `core curriculum' for almost 600 years in China
this was from 1313 until 1912.
China was the 1st country in the world to have regular examinations to enter the civil service
these were based on the Confucian books and their commentaries.
any male could take the examinations
success in them guaranteed a post with the government.
generally in families that could afford it selected at least one boy in the family
he was to receive a Confucian education and to prepare for the examinations.
in aristocratic y families, all boys were given a Confucian education.

the sayings of Confucius and Mencius came to pervade Chinese culture
the Confucian canon also influenced neighbouring cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

The Five Classics:

The Book of History (Shu Jing, Shu Ching):

this is an anthology of historical material
it is about kings from earliest times to until the early Zhou period (c. 1122-256 B.C.E.)

The Book of Poetry (Shi Jing, Shi Ching)

- this is a collection of 300 poems of the Zhou period, with some moral intent.

The Book of Changes (Yi Jing, Yi Ching)

this speaks of the patters of the universe
it is used to understand future events and to work with them properly.
thus it a book of divination; it replaced the use of oracle bones

The Book of Rites (Li Ji, Li Chi):

this lists ancient ceremonies and their meaning.
another book, the Book of Music is said to have once been a part of the classics
it no longer exists separately.

- part of it probably survives in the Book of Rites.

The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu, Ch'un Ch'u):

- this comprises historical records of the state of Lu, where Confucius lived.

The Four Books:

The Analects (Lun Yu):

these are the sayings of Confucius and his conversations with followers.
tradition holds that his followers collected his sayings and wrote them down
this work may be better attributed to his disciples than his followers.

The Great Learning (Da Xue, Ta Hsieh):

this is a short discussion of the characters and influence of the noble man.
this was the first book to be memorized and studied by Chinese students.
the book stresses that one must begin with self-cultivation and personal virtue
this is if one wishes to produce order in the family and state.

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong, Chung Yung):

this is a work that speaks in praise of the `mean' or equilibrium.
this balance unites the individual with the balance of the universe.

The Mencius (Mengzi, Meng Tzu):

this is a long collection of the teachings of Mencius,
he was a Confucian who lived several centuries after Confucius.

Sunday, May 3, 2020