THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHINA

INTELLECTUAL LIFE

• prior to imperial unification there was a formative period of Chinese intellectual tradition
• there was competition between a number of thinkers
• they tried to find an answer or remedy to the socio-political turmoil
• they wanted to lay down an ideological foundation for a unified empire.

• the crisis of the Zhou world led to an unprecedented upsurge of intellectual activity
• this was the age of the “Hundred Schools of Thought
• this was marked by a period of freedom of thought
• it was not suppressed by political or religious orthodoxies.

• thinkers competed for the patronage of the rulers
• they went  from court to court in search of employment
• their remedies consisted of the following options:
• a) harsh authoritarianism
• b) anarchist individualism
• c) support of laissez-faire economy of state monopolies
• d) blatant militarism
• e) radical pacifism.

• Chinese thought was dominated by political & practical concerns
• it was no interested in speculative philosophy or ontological questions
• doctrines had to be convincing but practical
• unanimously they advocated “all under Heaven” as the only solution
• no one ever suggested independence of his natal state
• the monarchical system was the only acceptable form of political organization
• no alternative was ever proposed
• individuality should reflect one’s abilities, not pedigree.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND:

• Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are the three main influential religions of China
• there is a background out of which these ideas emerged, especially Daoism.

• early beliefs in China consisted of a mixture of several elements
• some of these, such as the belief in spirits can be traced back more than 3000 years.
• the following elements provide a basis for later developments in Chinese religion
• this is especially true of Daoism

Spirits:

• early Chinese beliefs seem to have been polytheistic and animistic
• spirits were believed to be active within elements of nature
• these would be water, fire, wind, clouds, trees etc
• good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility
• bad spirits caused accidents and diseases.
• disturbances from nature, such as earthquakes and droughts were punishment from spirit
• this was due to human failings but harmony could be restored through rituals and sacrifice.

Tian:

• during the Shang dynasty the omnipotent power was believed to rule the world 
• this power was called Shang Di (Shang Ti) 
• it was thought of as a personal god and capable of being contacted by diviner
• it is possible that Shang Ti was the memory of an ancestor
• veneration of him was part of the ancient practice of honouring ancestors.
• during the Zhou dynasty (c.1122-256 B.C.E.) a new political regime ignored the Shang belief
• they began explaining it in terms of a different conception,
• Tian (Ti’en)was envisioned as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth
• it was also viewed as a moral principle that determines right and wrong.

Veneration of Ancestors:

• the same reverence that was shown to the spirits was also naturally felt for ancestors.
• ancestors at death became spirits and needed to be placate
• this was to ensure their positive influence on living family members.

Seeing Patterns in Nature:

• China’s has long and mighty rivers, high mountain chains, distinct seasons
• it also has frequent floods, draughts, and earthquakes
• these events influenced the Chinese view of the natural world.
• to survive they had to learn to work with its nature
• they understood its underlying patterns 
• some of these patterns were easy to discern
• this would be the seasons, the paths of the sun, the moon and the cycle of birth and death.
• others were more subtle, like the motion of the waves, the ripple of mountain ranges

Yang and Yin:

• about 1000 B.C.E. the Chinese thought that the universe expressed itself
• this was the opposite but complimentary principles of 
• light and dark, 
• night and day, 
• hot and cold, 
• sky and earth, 
• male and female, 
• sound and silence 
• the list of the polarity was endless
• the names for these complementary principles are yang and yin.
• we can think of yin/yang as pulsating energies, like a heartbeat breathing in and out.

Divination:

• divination (method employed for knowing the future) was an integral part of Chinese tradition.
• the oldest technique was the oracle bones method.
• later an elaborate practice was developed that involves the Yi Jing (I Ching) 
• this was the Book of Changes.
• his is an ancient book that interprets life through an analysis of hexagrams
• a hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines
• there are two kinds; broken (yin) and unbroken lines (yang)
• a hexagram is made up of two trigrams
• it is `constructed' by tossing yarrow sticks (the traditional method) or coins
• you write down the results, beginning with the bottom line.
• thus 64 hexagrams are possible
• they are thought to represent patterns that can develop in one's life
• the Yi Jing gives an interpretation of each of these hexagrams
• with the Yi Jing, one can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions about the future.

DAOISM:

• Daoism incorporated many of the elements from traditional Chinese beliefs (folk religion),
• thus Daoism is like a basket filled with a variety of items: 
• a) observations about nature
• b) philosophical insights
• c) guidelines for living
• e) exercises for health
• f) rituals of protection
• g) practices for attaining longevity and inner purity.

• Daoism, today, includes ideas and practices both from the early philosophical phase
• this also includes aspects from the later development of Daoism as a religion. 

• it is common to differentiate between 
• a) the philosophical Taoism that we find in the Tao-te-Ching of about 300 B.C.E
• b) the later ritualized Taoism that arose after 100 C.E.
• scholars, today, think that philosophical Taoism may have emerged from ritualistic origins
• this was the shamanistic tradition)
• later ritualistic Daoism is seen as an expression of the philosophical insights of Daoism
• this would be in the form of ritualism and ceremonies.

• early Daoism was influenced by shamanism
• it created literature that was philosophical in orientation.
• later it organized and emerged as a religion.

Laozi (Lao-Tzu): 

-   Daoism as a body of teachings is often traced to a legendary figure name Laozi,

• in the traditional story, Laozi's birth (c.600 B.C.E.) resulted from a virginal conception.
• according to the legend the child was born old - hence, the name "old child."

-   Laozi later became a state archivist or librarian, in the royal city of Luoyang for many years.

• tiring of his job, he left his post and carried by an ox, travelled to the far West of China
• at the Western border, Laozi was recognized as an esteemed scholar 
• he was not allowed from crossing to the West until he had written down his teachings
• the result was the Daodejing (Tao-te-Ching) , a short work of about 5,000 characters.
• after he was finished with the book he was allowed to go through the pass of the mountain 
• he was never seen again.

Daodejing: 

-   the Daodejing is the great classic of Daoism, 

• it is accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture
• it is deemed as one of the world's greatest books.

• Its title is  "the classical book about the Way and it Power" 
• it is sometimes referred to as the Laozi, after its legendary author
• it has had a tremendous impact on Chinese culture.

• the 81 short chapters are probably a compilation of the work of many people
• it is likely not the work of one person
• the text is sometimes repetitious 
• it has no clear order
• it exhibits an intentional lack of clarity
• its form is more poetry than prose.

• what was the original purpose of the text? 
• there are several theories:
• a) it was meant to be a handbook for rulers, thus its purpose was generally political. 
• b) it is primarily a book of religious value, leading its adherents to spiritual insights
• c) it is seen as a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe and nature
• it is all these things taken together
• several passages can have several meanings at the same time.

• throughout the text there are references to the tao
• the book speaks of its nature and operation.
• it describes the manner in which people will live if they are in harmony with the dao.
• it also offers suggestions for experiencing the dao
• it also provides imagery to help describe these things. 
• so, what is the tao?

• the first chapter begins by stating that "the tao that can be told is not the eternal tao."
• In other words, there is no way that it can be described or expressed using words
• yet the book goes on to tell us that the dao is nameless
• it is not any individual thing that has a name -such as a window or door, a person or a bird. 
• the Tao cannot be named because it has no form 
• but the dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name
• the Daodejing says that the dao is 
• a) the origin of everything
• b) that all things are `manifestations' of the dao.

• the dao is the origin of things, it is not the same as the Judeo-Christian-Islamic notion of God
• this is because it does not have a personality
• it neither care about humans, nor dislikes them - in fact we can't speak of it this way
• it only produces humans and the rest of nature 
• because the dao can make nature move the way it does, it can be called the Way, 
• or, the rhythm of nature - other terms: the watercourse way (Watts); the `flow' or a process.

• to experience the tao, we must leave behind our desire for individuality and things
• the dao is a concept that runs counter to everyday concerns
• the Daoist way of being or seeing the world is so odd or strange
• to some people it may seem like trying to see in the dark.

• the Daodejing presents powerful images wherein the tao seems most active and visible
• some common images are water, woman, child, valley, darkness.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)

• Daoism was enriched by the work of Zhuangzi, who was active around 300 B.C.E.
• what we know comes from the writings he left behind.

• his personality seems playful, independent, and in love with the fantastic
• the book of his writings called the Zhuangzi is composed of seven `inner chapters’
• these are thought to be by the author himself 
• but for the twenty six `outer chapters' the authorship is less certain.

• the Zhuangzi, unlike the poetry of the Daodejing contains many whimsical stories
• it continues the themes of early Daoist thought
• these are:
• a) the need for harmony with nature
• b) the movement of the Dao in all that happens 
• c) the pleasure we can gain from simplicity.

• it underscores the inevitability of change and the relativity of all human judgements
• it also adds to Daoism an appreciation for humour.

• the most famous of all the stories tells of Zhuangzi's dream of being a butterfly
• in his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know who he was - he was not sure if he was Zhuangzi.
• when he woke up he was struck by a question.
• am I Zhuangzi dreaming that I am a butterfly or am I a butterfly dreaming that I'm Zhuangzi? 
• the boundary between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think
• that was the idea being implied

• the Zhuangzi rejects all barriers
• a) that between the ordinary and the fantastic
• b) between the normal and the paranormal.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHICAL DAOISM

- the main teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi can be summarized as follows:

Dao:

• this is the mysterious reality makes nature what it is and to act the way it does
• Dao is primarily the way that nature expresses itself - the natural way.

Wu wei: 

• the ideal of effortlessness - to have commandments would go against the nature of Daoism.
• it does offer recommendations on how to live but they do not come from as divine voice
• it comes from nature herself, the model of balance and harmony. 
• Wu wei - refers to "no action,  no strain, no effort
• it implies the avoidance of doing things against the grain
• or avoiding doing things that are not natural, nor spontaneous
• when we look at nature we notice that much of what it does is effortless, it is natural
• nature works to accomplish what is necessary and nothing more.

Simplicity: 

• Daoism encourages people to 
• a) eliminate whatever is unnecessary and artificial
• b) to appreciate the simple and the ordinary
• in this sense, Daoism distrusts education 
• this is because of the inherent complexity and artificiality of education

Gentleness: 

• because the Taoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war. 
• the wise person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence.

Relativity: 

• people see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own concerns
• they tend to see things in terms of their divisions: I-you, good-bad, valuable-worthless  etc 
• Daoists think it is necessary to attain a vision of things that sees beyond these opposites.

CONFUCIANISM: 

THE TAO IN CONFUCIANISM:

• Daoism tries to bring human beings into union with the Tao
• we do this through imitating certain qualities in nature - i
• a) its harmony, l
• b) its lack of strain
• c) its flowing mystery.
• these ideals and beliefs also influenced Confucius.

• there is a difference between Taoist and Confucian notions of the Tao
• for Confucians the Dao of primary interest is the Tao between the human world
• this is manifested in `right' relationships and in a harmonious society
• it was social harmony.

• in Daoism, everything is a part of the rhythm of nature - the Dao
• in Confucianism, birds and clouds and trees are what they should be
• but human beings do not automatically become or remain what they should be.

• the sweet innocent and spontaneous child can quickly turn into the selfish child
• the Confucian would say that training in virtue is necessary
• this is to enable the Dao to manifest itself clearly in the human being.
• the Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian text recommends several types of training
• it includes  training in the cultivation of personal equilibrium and harmony.
• Daoists avoid such training,
• they feel that formal education has the potential for distorting one’s original state of being
• or pure state
• Confucians, hold the view  that the best training does not contaminate character
• in fact by cultivating virtues, it gives it definition and clarity.

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS:

• Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E. 
• this was when when China was not a single empire but a group of small kingdoms.
• his name was Kong Qiu (K'ung Ch’iu). 
• he later became known as Kong Fuzi (K'ung Fu-Tzu) meaning `Master Kong’
• he became known in the West by the Latin version of his name
• this was created and spread by European Catholic missionaries.

• tradition tells that Confucius was from a once-noble family
• they had fled at the time of political danger to the state of Lu (south of present-day Beijing).
• his father died when he was a child,
• his mother raised him as an educated gentleman
• he enjoyed chariot riding, archery, and playing the lute
• in his teens, he became seriously interested in pursuing scholarship.

• he is said to have held a minor government post as tax collector
• this was probably to support his mother and his studies.
• his mother died when he was in his late teens and he entered into a state of mourning.
• when the period of mourning was over, he began his public life teaching.

• Confucius always wanted to play an influential part in government
• it is possible that, for a time, (about 500-496 B.C.E.) he became a government minister. 
• Confucius married and is believed to have had a son and daughter
• he wandered for about 15 years outside of his home state but eventually returned to Lu
• this was to take a somewhat ceremonial post as senior advisor
• he died about 479 B.C.E.

CONFUCIAN VIRTUES:

• when Confucius was born it was a time of social turmoil 
• this was because of the disintegration of the feudal system
• Confucius saw families suffering from the social disorder
• he concluded that society would function properly only if virtues were taught and lived.

• the ideals of Confucius were two: 
• 1) he wanted to produce `excellent' individuals who could be social leaders; 
• 2) he wanted to create a harmonious society.

 - he believed that these ideals were complementary: 

• excellent individuals would keep society harmonious
• a harmonious society would nurture excellent individuals.

• he believed that each human being is capable of being good, refined and even great.
• he was convinced that a human being cannot achieve these qualities in isolation
• for him, a human being becomes a full person only through the contributions of others
• this included fulfilling one's obligations to them
• these other people are parents, teachers, aunts and uncles, grandparents, ancestor
• they may even be government officials.

• Confucius also believed that more than social interaction (which animals have) is needed.
• what that `more' is makes ordinary human beings into excellent human beings
• these are  `superior persons’.
• what constitutes that `more’?
• what are the sources of human excellent?

• excellence comes from the cultivation of an individual's virtues and intellect.
• thus education is essential.
• for Confucius education meant more than knowledge
• it also involved the development of skills in 
• a) poetry,
• b) music, 
• c) artistic appreciation,
• d) manners,
• e) religious rituals. 
• Confucius valued education because it transmitted the lessons of the past into the present
• Confucius was convinced that the past provides the models for the present.
• Confucius believed that social harmony is established when people play their roles properly. 
• the sense of responsibility was codified in five great relationships.

THE FIVE RELATIONSHIPS:

• in Confucianism, relationships are just as real as any visible objects
• human beings are not individuals but interwoven threads of relationships with many people.
• for Confucianists human beings are their relationships.

• but not all relationships are equal
• the level of a relationship may be determined by personal factors
• these are friends, or family connections, or 
• these could be formal social factors, such as age or socioeconomic status
• Confucius recognizes this inequality
• therefore lists relationships according to a hierarchy, beginning with the most important.

Father-Son: 

• family is the foundation of society
• the relationship between father and son at its core.
• this relationship represents all parent-child relationship
• the father must be responsible for the education and moral formation of the son
• and the son must be respectful and obedient and must care for his father in old age. 
• the relationship of obligation is mutual and does not end until the death of the father. 
• the parent-child relationship is fundamental
• it can function as the model for similar relationships 
• these would be that between an employee and an employer.

Elder Brother-Younger Brother: 

• lots of European languages do not distinguish between an elder and a younger brother.
• but the Asian languages have different words for the two kinds of brothers
• in their culture the distinction is important
• an elder brother must assume responsibility for raising the younger siblings
• the younger siblings must be compliant
• when a father dies too early, the responsibility of raising the children shifts to the elder son..

Husband-Wife: 

• each person in this relationship is responsible for the other's care.
• in Confucian thought, the relationship is hierarchical
• the husband is the authoritative protector 
• the wife is the protected homemaker and mother.

Friend-Friend:

• the relationship between friends, entails serious obligations
• a friendship made in youth is expected to last a lifetime
• sometimes this is listed as a relationship between an elder person and a younger person
• in friendship there is often a certain hierarch
• the friends may differ in rank, health, or wealth, or knowledge
• one has the responsibility to assist the other friend who is in need depending on status

Ruler-Subject: 

• sometimes this relationship is listed first but more often it appears last
• this reflects the Confucian perspective on the role of a ruler
• the ruler must act like the father, assuming responsibility and care for the subjects 
• for the ruler the subjects are like his children
• the father-son relationship is primary in that it is a model for most other relationships.
• for Confucians the social order begins in a harmonious home and then extends outward -

• the Five Relationships signify that each person must live up to
• a)  his or her social role
• b) social status. 
• this has been called the rectification of names - 
• one only needs to consult one's social role and title to know one's duty.

THE CONFUCIAN VALUES:

• the virtues most prized by Confucianism are social virtues.
• individual uniqueness is expected to be muted, subtle, and considerate of others.

Ren (jen).

• the Confucian character fore ren illustrates the meaning by blending two simple pictograph
• this is  `person' and `two' - the meaning is that we think of the other. T
• the term is translated as 
• sympathy, 
• empathy, 
• benevolence, 
• humaneness, 
• kindness, 
• consideration, 
• thoughtfulness
• human-heartedness.

Li: 

• this word is often translated as `propriety' 
• this means doing what is appropriate or doing what is appropriate for the situation.
• originally li referred to carrying out rites correctly
• more generally it means using the proper words and actions for social life
• for each situation, there are 
• a) proper words to say, 
• b) proper ways to dress
• c) correct things to do. I
• in the Analects, Confucius says, "To subdue one's self and return to propriety, is perfect virtue." (12,1,1) 
• it comes down to having and practising good manners - it is putting ren into practice.

Shu: 

• the usual translation of this term is `reciprocity’
• it means answering the following question: How will my action affect the other person?
• it is another version of the Golden Rule: “
• Do onto others as you would have them do onto you". 
• the Confucian version is stated in negative terms: 
• "Do not do onto others what you would not wish done to yourself"

Xiao (hsiao): 

• this is usually translated as `filial piety' (devotion of a son or daughter to a parent). 
• it means the devotion that all members have to their entire family.
• it encompasses several notions: r
• a) remembrance of ancestors, 
• b) respect for parents and elders, 
• c) care for children in the family.

Wen: 

• the term means `culture' and includes all the arts that are associated with civilization.
• Confucianists have a special love for poetry and literature
• they also have a fondness for calligraphy, painting, and music.
• the educated person must have a knowledge of these arts & have an amateur skill in them.

• Confucianism stresses other virtues as well 
• these are:
• a) loyalty, 
• b) consensus, 
• c) hard work, 
• d) thrift
• e) emotional control.

CONFUCIAN LITERATURE:

• Confucius considered himself a transmitter of wisdom
• what is considered the literature of Confucianism actually preceded him
• it was subsequently edited and added by Confucian scholars.
• it is not always possible to separate with certainty the teachings of 
• a) Confucius, 
• b) his predecessors
• c) his followers.

• Confucian literature is divided into the Five Classics and the Four Books.
• this includes 
• a) pre-Confucian works of poetry, history, and divination, 
• b) the sayings of Confucius and his disciples,
• c) the sayings of Mencius
• the canon of Confucian literature has varied 
• it became settled during the Song dynasty (960-1279).

• Confucian literature was the `core curriculum' for almost 600 years in China
• this was from 1313 until 1912.
• China was the 1st country in the world to have regular examinations to enter the civil service
• these were based on the Confucian books and their commentaries.
• any male could take the examinations 
• success in them guaranteed a post with the government.
• generally in families that could afford it selected at least one boy in the family 
• he was to receive a Confucian education and to prepare for the  examinations.
• in aristocratic y families, all boys were given a Confucian education.

• the sayings of Confucius and Mencius came to pervade Chinese culture
• the Confucian canon also influenced neighbouring cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

The Five Classics:

The Book of History (Shu Jing, Shu Ching): 

• this is an anthology of historical material
• it is about kings from earliest times to until the early Zhou period (c. 1122-256 B.C.E.)

The Book of Poetry (Shi Jing, Shi Ching)

- this is a collection of 300 poems of the Zhou period, with some moral intent.

The Book of Changes (Yi Jing, Yi Ching) 

• this speaks of the patters of the universe
• it is used to understand future events and to work with them properly.
• thus it a book of divination; it replaced the use of oracle bones

The Book of Rites (Li Ji, Li Chi): 

• this lists ancient ceremonies and their meaning.
• another book, the Book of Music is said to have once been a part of the classics
• it no longer exists separately. 

-   part of it probably survives in the Book of Rites.

The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu, Ch'un Ch'u): 

- this comprises historical records of the state of Lu, where Confucius lived.

The Four Books:

The Analects (Lun Yu): 

• these are the sayings of Confucius and his conversations with followers.
• tradition holds that his followers collected his sayings and wrote them down
• this work may be better attributed to his disciples than his followers.

The Great Learning (Da Xue, Ta Hsieh): 

• this is a short discussion of the characters and influence of the noble man. 
• this was the first book to be memorized and studied by Chinese students.
• the book stresses that one must begin with self-cultivation and personal virtue
• this is if one wishes to produce order in the family and state.

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong, Chung Yung): 

• this is a work that speaks in praise of the `mean' or equilibrium. 
• this balance unites the individual with the balance of the universe.

The Mencius (Mengzi, Meng Tzu): 

• this is a long collection of the teachings of Mencius, 
• he was a Confucian who lived several centuries after Confucius.