Sunday, May 3, 2020

THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHINA


INTELLECTUAL LIFE


  • prior to imperial unification there was a formative period of Chinese intellectual tradition
  • there was competition between a number of thinkers
  • they tried to find an answer or remedy to the socio-political turmoil
  • they wanted to lay down an ideological foundation for a unified empire.

  • the crisis of the Zhou world led to an unprecedented upsurge of intellectual activity
  • this was the age of the “Hundred Schools of Thought
  • this was marked by a period of freedom of thought
  • it was not suppressed by political or religious orthodoxies.

  • thinkers competed for the patronage of the rulers
  • they went  from court to court in search of employment
  • their remedies consisted of the following options:
  • a) harsh authoritarianism
  • b) anarchist individualism
  • c) support of laissez-faire economy of state monopolies
  • d) blatant militarism
  • e) radical pacifism.

  • Chinese thought was dominated by political & practical concerns
  • it was no interested in speculative philosophy or ontological questions
  • doctrines had to be convincing but practical
  • unanimously they advocated “all under Heaven” as the only solution
  • no one ever suggested independence of his natal state
  • the monarchical system was the only acceptable form of political organization
  • no alternative was ever proposed
  • individuality should reflect one’s abilities, not pedigree.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND:

  • Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are the three main influential religions of China
  • there is a background out of which these ideas emerged, especially Daoism.

  • early beliefs in China consisted of a mixture of several elements
  • some of these, such as the belief in spirits can be traced back more than 3000 years.
  • the following elements provide a basis for later developments in Chinese religion
  • this is especially true of Daoism

Spirits:

  • early Chinese beliefs seem to have been polytheistic and animistic
  • spirits were believed to be active within elements of nature
  • these would be water, fire, wind, clouds, trees etc
  • good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility
  • bad spirits caused accidents and diseases.
  • disturbances from nature, such as earthquakes and droughts were punishment from spirit
  • this was due to human failings but harmony could be restored through rituals and sacrifice.

Tian:

  • during the Shang dynasty the omnipotent power was believed to rule the world 
  • this power was called Shang Di (Shang Ti) 
  • it was thought of as a personal god and capable of being contacted by diviner
  • it is possible that Shang Ti was the memory of an ancestor
  • veneration of him was part of the ancient practice of honouring ancestors.
  • during the Zhou dynasty (c.1122-256 B.C.E.) a new political regime ignored the Shang belief
  • they began explaining it in terms of a different conception,
  • Tian (Ti’en)was envisioned as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth
  • it was also viewed as a moral principle that determines right and wrong.

Veneration of Ancestors:

  • the same reverence that was shown to the spirits was also naturally felt for ancestors.
  • ancestors at death became spirits and needed to be placate
  • this was to ensure their positive influence on living family members.

Seeing Patterns in Nature:

  • China’s has long and mighty rivers, high mountain chains, distinct seasons
  • it also has frequent floods, draughts, and earthquakes
  • these events influenced the Chinese view of the natural world.
  • to survive they had to learn to work with its nature
  • they understood its underlying patterns 
  • some of these patterns were easy to discern
  • this would be the seasons, the paths of the sun, the moon and the cycle of birth and death.
  • others were more subtle, like the motion of the waves, the ripple of mountain ranges

Yang and Yin:

  • about 1000 B.C.E. the Chinese thought that the universe expressed itself
  • this was the opposite but complimentary principles of 
  • light and dark, 
  • night and day, 
  • hot and cold, 
  • sky and earth, 
  • male and female, 
  • sound and silence 
  • the list of the polarity was endless
  • the names for these complementary principles are yang and yin.
  • we can think of yin/yang as pulsating energies, like a heartbeat breathing in and out.

Divination:

  • divination (method employed for knowing the future) was an integral part of Chinese tradition.
  • the oldest technique was the oracle bones method.
  • later an elaborate practice was developed that involves the Yi Jing (I Ching) 
  • this was the Book of Changes.
  • his is an ancient book that interprets life through an analysis of hexagrams
  • a hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines
  • there are two kinds; broken (yin) and unbroken lines (yang)
  • a hexagram is made up of two trigrams
  • it is `constructed' by tossing yarrow sticks (the traditional method) or coins
  • you write down the results, beginning with the bottom line.
  • thus 64 hexagrams are possible
  • they are thought to represent patterns that can develop in one's life
  • the Yi Jing gives an interpretation of each of these hexagrams
  • with the Yi Jing, one can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions about the future.

DAOISM:

  • Daoism incorporated many of the elements from traditional Chinese beliefs (folk religion),
  • thus Daoism is like a basket filled with a variety of items: 
  • a) observations about nature
  • b) philosophical insights
  • c) guidelines for living
  • e) exercises for health
  • f) rituals of protection
  • g) practices for attaining longevity and inner purity.

  • Daoism, today, includes ideas and practices both from the early philosophical phase
  • this also includes aspects from the later development of Daoism as a religion. 

  • it is common to differentiate between 
  • a) the philosophical Taoism that we find in the Tao-te-Ching of about 300 B.C.E
  • b) the later ritualized Taoism that arose after 100 C.E.
  • scholars, today, think that philosophical Taoism may have emerged from ritualistic origins
  • this was the shamanistic tradition)
  • later ritualistic Daoism is seen as an expression of the philosophical insights of Daoism
  • this would be in the form of ritualism and ceremonies.

  • early Daoism was influenced by shamanism
  • it created literature that was philosophical in orientation.
  • later it organized and emerged as a religion.

Laozi (Lao-Tzu): 

-   Daoism as a body of teachings is often traced to a legendary figure name Laozi,
  • in the traditional story, Laozi's birth (c.600 B.C.E.) resulted from a virginal conception.
  • according to the legend the child was born old - hence, the name "old child."

-   Laozi later became a state archivist or librarian, in the royal city of Luoyang for many years.
  • tiring of his job, he left his post and carried by an ox, travelled to the far West of China
  • at the Western border, Laozi was recognized as an esteemed scholar 
  • he was not allowed from crossing to the West until he had written down his teachings
  • the result was the Daodejing (Tao-te-Ching) , a short work of about 5,000 characters.
  • after he was finished with the book he was allowed to go through the pass of the mountain 
  • he was never seen again.

Daodejing: 

-   the Daodejing is the great classic of Daoism, 
  • it is accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture
  • it is deemed as one of the world's greatest books.

  • Its title is  "the classical book about the Way and it Power" 
  • it is sometimes referred to as the Laozi, after its legendary author
  • it has had a tremendous impact on Chinese culture.

  • the 81 short chapters are probably a compilation of the work of many people
  • it is likely not the work of one person
  • the text is sometimes repetitious 
  • it has no clear order
  • it exhibits an intentional lack of clarity
  • its form is more poetry than prose.

  • what was the original purpose of the text? 
  • there are several theories:
  • a) it was meant to be a handbook for rulers, thus its purpose was generally political. 
  • b) it is primarily a book of religious value, leading its adherents to spiritual insights
  • c) it is seen as a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe and nature
  • it is all these things taken together
  • several passages can have several meanings at the same time.

  • throughout the text there are references to the tao
  • the book speaks of its nature and operation.
  • it describes the manner in which people will live if they are in harmony with the dao.
  • it also offers suggestions for experiencing the dao
  • it also provides imagery to help describe these things. 
  • so, what is the tao?

  • the first chapter begins by stating that "the tao that can be told is not the eternal tao."
  • In other words, there is no way that it can be described or expressed using words
  • yet the book goes on to tell us that the dao is nameless
  • it is not any individual thing that has a name -such as a window or door, a person or a bird. 
  • the Tao cannot be named because it has no form 
  • but the dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name
  • the Daodejing says that the dao is 
  • a) the origin of everything
  • b) that all things are `manifestations' of the dao.

  • the dao is the origin of things, it is not the same as the Judeo-Christian-Islamic notion of God
  • this is because it does not have a personality
  • it neither care about humans, nor dislikes them - in fact we can't speak of it this way
  • it only produces humans and the rest of nature 
  • because the dao can make nature move the way it does, it can be called the Way, 
  • or, the rhythm of nature - other terms: the watercourse way (Watts); the `flow' or a process.

  • to experience the tao, we must leave behind our desire for individuality and things
  • the dao is a concept that runs counter to everyday concerns
  • the Daoist way of being or seeing the world is so odd or strange
  • to some people it may seem like trying to see in the dark.

  • the Daodejing presents powerful images wherein the tao seems most active and visible
  • some common images are water, woman, child, valley, darkness.


Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)

  • Daoism was enriched by the work of Zhuangzi, who was active around 300 B.C.E.
  • what we know comes from the writings he left behind.

  • his personality seems playful, independent, and in love with the fantastic
  • the book of his writings called the Zhuangzi is composed of seven `inner chapters’
  • these are thought to be by the author himself 
  • but for the twenty six `outer chapters' the authorship is less certain.

  • the Zhuangzi, unlike the poetry of the Daodejing contains many whimsical stories
  • it continues the themes of early Daoist thought
  • these are:
  • a) the need for harmony with nature
  • b) the movement of the Dao in all that happens 
  • c) the pleasure we can gain from simplicity.


  • it underscores the inevitability of change and the relativity of all human judgements
  • it also adds to Daoism an appreciation for humour.

  • the most famous of all the stories tells of Zhuangzi's dream of being a butterfly
  • in his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know who he was - he was not sure if he was Zhuangzi.
  • when he woke up he was struck by a question.
  • am I Zhuangzi dreaming that I am a butterfly or am I a butterfly dreaming that I'm Zhuangzi? 
  • the boundary between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think
  • that was the idea being implied

  • the Zhuangzi rejects all barriers
  • a) that between the ordinary and the fantastic
  • b) between the normal and the paranormal.


THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHICAL DAOISM

- the main teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi can be summarized as follows:

Dao:
  • this is the mysterious reality makes nature what it is and to act the way it does
  • Dao is primarily the way that nature expresses itself - the natural way.

Wu wei: 
  • the ideal of effortlessness - to have commandments would go against the nature of Daoism.
  • it does offer recommendations on how to live but they do not come from as divine voice
  • it comes from nature herself, the model of balance and harmony. 
  • Wu wei - refers to "no action,  no strain, no effort
  • it implies the avoidance of doing things against the grain
  • or avoiding doing things that are not natural, nor spontaneous
  • when we look at nature we notice that much of what it does is effortless, it is natural
  • nature works to accomplish what is necessary and nothing more.

Simplicity: 
  • Daoism encourages people to 
  • a) eliminate whatever is unnecessary and artificial
  • b) to appreciate the simple and the ordinary
  • in this sense, Daoism distrusts education 
  • this is because of the inherent complexity and artificiality of education

Gentleness: 
  • because the Taoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war. 
  • the wise person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence.

Relativity
  • people see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own concerns
  • they tend to see things in terms of their divisions: I-you, good-bad, valuable-worthless  etc 
  • Daoists think it is necessary to attain a vision of things that sees beyond these opposites.


CONFUCIANISM: 


THE TAO IN CONFUCIANISM:

  • Daoism tries to bring human beings into union with the Tao
  • we do this through imitating certain qualities in nature - i
  • a) its harmony, l
  • b) its lack of strain
  • c) its flowing mystery.
  • these ideals and beliefs also influenced Confucius.

  • there is a difference between Taoist and Confucian notions of the Tao
  • for Confucians the Dao of primary interest is the Tao between the human world
  • this is manifested in `right' relationships and in a harmonious society
  • it was social harmony.

  • in Daoism, everything is a part of the rhythm of nature - the Dao
  • in Confucianism, birds and clouds and trees are what they should be
  • but human beings do not automatically become or remain what they should be.

  • the sweet innocent and spontaneous child can quickly turn into the selfish child
  • the Confucian would say that training in virtue is necessary
  • this is to enable the Dao to manifest itself clearly in the human being.
  • the Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian text recommends several types of training
  • it includes  training in the cultivation of personal equilibrium and harmony.
  • Daoists avoid such training,
  • they feel that formal education has the potential for distorting one’s original state of being
  • or pure state
  • Confucians, hold the view  that the best training does not contaminate character
  • in fact by cultivating virtues, it gives it definition and clarity.


THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS:

  • Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E. 
  • this was when when China was not a single empire but a group of small kingdoms.
  • his name was Kong Qiu (K'ung Ch’iu). 
  • he later became known as Kong Fuzi (K'ung Fu-Tzu) meaning `Master Kong’
  • he became known in the West by the Latin version of his name
  • this was created and spread by European Catholic missionaries.

  • tradition tells that Confucius was from a once-noble family
  • they had fled at the time of political danger to the state of Lu (south of present-day Beijing).
  • his father died when he was a child,
  • his mother raised him as an educated gentleman
  • he enjoyed chariot riding, archery, and playing the lute
  • in his teens, he became seriously interested in pursuing scholarship.



  • he is said to have held a minor government post as tax collector
  • this was probably to support his mother and his studies.
  • his mother died when he was in his late teens and he entered into a state of mourning.
  • when the period of mourning was over, he began his public life teaching.

  • Confucius always wanted to play an influential part in government
  • it is possible that, for a time, (about 500-496 B.C.E.) he became a government minister. 
  • Confucius married and is believed to have had a son and daughter
  • he wandered for about 15 years outside of his home state but eventually returned to Lu
  • this was to take a somewhat ceremonial post as senior advisor
  • he died about 479 B.C.E.

CONFUCIAN VIRTUES:

  • when Confucius was born it was a time of social turmoil 
  • this was because of the disintegration of the feudal system
  • Confucius saw families suffering from the social disorder
  • he concluded that society would function properly only if virtues were taught and lived.

  • the ideals of Confucius were two: 
  • 1) he wanted to produce `excellent' individuals who could be social leaders; 
  • 2) he wanted to create a harmonious society.

 - he believed that these ideals were complementary: 
  • excellent individuals would keep society harmonious
  • a harmonious society would nurture excellent individuals.

  • he believed that each human being is capable of being good, refined and even great.
  • he was convinced that a human being cannot achieve these qualities in isolation
  • for him, a human being becomes a full person only through the contributions of others
  • this included fulfilling one's obligations to them
  • these other people are parents, teachers, aunts and uncles, grandparents, ancestor
  • they may even be government officials.

  • Confucius also believed that more than social interaction (which animals have) is needed.
  • what that `more' is makes ordinary human beings into excellent human beings
  • these are  `superior persons’.
  • what constitutes that `more’?
  • what are the sources of human excellent?

  • excellence comes from the cultivation of an individual's virtues and intellect.
  • thus education is essential.
  • for Confucius education meant more than knowledge
  • it also involved the development of skills in 
  • a) poetry,
  • b) music, 
  • c) artistic appreciation,
  • d) manners,
  • e) religious rituals. 
  • Confucius valued education because it transmitted the lessons of the past into the present
  • Confucius was convinced that the past provides the models for the present.
  • Confucius believed that social harmony is established when people play their roles properly. 
  • the sense of responsibility was codified in five great relationships.


THE FIVE RELATIONSHIPS:

  • in Confucianism, relationships are just as real as any visible objects
  • human beings are not individuals but interwoven threads of relationships with many people.
  • for Confucianists human beings are their relationships.

  • but not all relationships are equal
  • the level of a relationship may be determined by personal factors
  • these are friends, or family connections, or 
  • these could be formal social factors, such as age or socioeconomic status
  • Confucius recognizes this inequality
  • therefore lists relationships according to a hierarchy, beginning with the most important.

Father-Son
  • family is the foundation of society
  • the relationship between father and son at its core.
  • this relationship represents all parent-child relationship
  • the father must be responsible for the education and moral formation of the son
  • and the son must be respectful and obedient and must care for his father in old age. 
  • the relationship of obligation is mutual and does not end until the death of the father. 
  • the parent-child relationship is fundamental
  • it can function as the model for similar relationships 
  • these would be that between an employee and an employer.

Elder Brother-Younger Brother
  • lots of European languages do not distinguish between an elder and a younger brother.
  • but the Asian languages have different words for the two kinds of brothers
  • in their culture the distinction is important
  • an elder brother must assume responsibility for raising the younger siblings
  • the younger siblings must be compliant
  • when a father dies too early, the responsibility of raising the children shifts to the elder son..

Husband-Wife: 
  • each person in this relationship is responsible for the other's care.
  • in Confucian thought, the relationship is hierarchical
  • the husband is the authoritative protector 
  • the wife is the protected homemaker and mother.

Friend-Friend:
  • the relationship between friends, entails serious obligations
  • a friendship made in youth is expected to last a lifetime
  • sometimes this is listed as a relationship between an elder person and a younger person
  • in friendship there is often a certain hierarch
  • the friends may differ in rank, health, or wealth, or knowledge
  • one has the responsibility to assist the other friend who is in need depending on status

Ruler-Subject
  • sometimes this relationship is listed first but more often it appears last
  • this reflects the Confucian perspective on the role of a ruler
  • the ruler must act like the father, assuming responsibility and care for the subjects 
  • for the ruler the subjects are like his children
  • the father-son relationship is primary in that it is a model for most other relationships.
  • for Confucians the social order begins in a harmonious home and then extends outward -

  • the Five Relationships signify that each person must live up to
  • a)  his or her social role
  • b) social status. 
  • this has been called the rectification of names
  • one only needs to consult one's social role and title to know one's duty.


THE CONFUCIAN VALUES:

  • the virtues most prized by Confucianism are social virtues.
  • individual uniqueness is expected to be muted, subtle, and considerate of others.

Ren (jen).
  • the Confucian character fore ren illustrates the meaning by blending two simple pictograph
  • this is  `person' and `two' - the meaning is that we think of the other. T
  • the term is translated as 
  • sympathy, 
  • empathy, 
  • benevolence, 
  • humaneness, 
  • kindness, 
  • consideration, 
  • thoughtfulness
  • human-heartedness.

Li: 
  • this word is often translated as `propriety' 
  • this means doing what is appropriate or doing what is appropriate for the situation.
  • originally li referred to carrying out rites correctly
  • more generally it means using the proper words and actions for social life
  • for each situation, there are 
  • a) proper words to say, 
  • b) proper ways to dress
  • c) correct things to do. I
  • in the Analects, Confucius says, "To subdue one's self and return to propriety, is perfect virtue." (12,1,1) 
  • it comes down to having and practising good manners - it is putting ren into practice.

Shu
  • the usual translation of this term is `reciprocity’
  • it means answering the following question: How will my action affect the other person?
  • it is another version of the Golden Rule: “
  • Do onto others as you would have them do onto you". 
  • the Confucian version is stated in negative terms: 
  • "Do not do onto others what you would not wish done to yourself"

Xiao (hsiao): 
  • this is usually translated as `filial piety' (devotion of a son or daughter to a parent). 
  • it means the devotion that all members have to their entire family.
  • it encompasses several notions: r
  • a) remembrance of ancestors, 
  • b) respect for parents and elders, 
  • c) care for children in the family.

Wen
  • the term means `culture' and includes all the arts that are associated with civilization.
  • Confucianists have a special love for poetry and literature
  • they also have a fondness for calligraphy, painting, and music.
  • the educated person must have a knowledge of these arts & have an amateur skill in them.

  • Confucianism stresses other virtues as well 
  • these are:
  • a) loyalty, 
  • b) consensus, 
  • c) hard work, 
  • d) thrift
  • e) emotional control.

CONFUCIAN LITERATURE:

  • Confucius considered himself a transmitter of wisdom
  • what is considered the literature of Confucianism actually preceded him
  • it was subsequently edited and added by Confucian scholars.
  • it is not always possible to separate with certainty the teachings of 
  • a) Confucius, 
  • b) his predecessors
  • c) his followers.

  • Confucian literature is divided into the Five Classics and the Four Books.
  • this includes 
  • a) pre-Confucian works of poetry, history, and divination, 
  • b) the sayings of Confucius and his disciples,
  • c) the sayings of Mencius
  • the canon of Confucian literature has varied 
  • it became settled during the Song dynasty (960-1279).

  • Confucian literature was the `core curriculum' for almost 600 years in China
  • this was from 1313 until 1912.
  • China was the 1st country in the world to have regular examinations to enter the civil service
  • these were based on the Confucian books and their commentaries.
  • any male could take the examinations 
  • success in them guaranteed a post with the government.
  • generally in families that could afford it selected at least one boy in the family 
  • he was to receive a Confucian education and to prepare for the  examinations.
  • in aristocratic y families, all boys were given a Confucian education.

  • the sayings of Confucius and Mencius came to pervade Chinese culture
  • the Confucian canon also influenced neighbouring cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
The Five Classics:

The Book of History (Shu Jing, Shu Ching)
  • this is an anthology of historical material
  • it is about kings from earliest times to until the early Zhou period (c. 1122-256 B.C.E.)

The Book of Poetry (Shi Jing, Shi Ching)
- this is a collection of 300 poems of the Zhou period, with some moral intent.

The Book of Changes (Yi Jing, Yi Ching) 
  • this speaks of the patters of the universe
  • it is used to understand future events and to work with them properly.
  • thus it a book of divination; it replaced the use of oracle bones

The Book of Rites (Li Ji, Li Chi): 
  • this lists ancient ceremonies and their meaning.
  • another book, the Book of Music is said to have once been a part of the classics
  • it no longer exists separately. 
-   part of it probably survives in the Book of Rites.

The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu, Ch'un Ch'u)
- this comprises historical records of the state of Lu, where Confucius lived.


The Four Books:

The Analects (Lun Yu): 
  • these are the sayings of Confucius and his conversations with followers.
  • tradition holds that his followers collected his sayings and wrote them down
  • this work may be better attributed to his disciples than his followers.

The Great Learning (Da Xue, Ta Hsieh)
  • this is a short discussion of the characters and influence of the noble man. 
  • this was the first book to be memorized and studied by Chinese students.
  • the book stresses that one must begin with self-cultivation and personal virtue
  • this is if one wishes to produce order in the family and state.

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong, Chung Yung): 
  • this is a work that speaks in praise of the `mean' or equilibrium. 
  • this balance unites the individual with the balance of the universe.

The Mencius (Mengzi, Meng Tzu): 
  • this is a long collection of the teachings of Mencius, 
  • he was a Confucian who lived several centuries after Confucius.

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