Ancient China: October 2021

Xuangzong's Reign (712--56)

a) initial period of consolidation and reform; lasted until 720
b) a middle period in which constructive policies were still being applied, but serious problems began to emerge;
c) a final period during which the emperor withdrew from direct involvement in government and the crisis developed which led to the rebellion of An Lushan.

Initial Period of His Reign

Xuanzong was helped by several able ministers, especially Yao Chong,
he put forth a ten-point programme to address problems of administration.
number of chief ministers was reduced and those that were retained increased their authority. - those who passed the examinations were promoted - served in neglected areas
the administrative and penal codes were revised to ensure uniformity
measures relating to supply and taxes were introduced.
supply of grain was improved.
significant reforms concerned the military. l
the system was not able to deal with the threats of eastern Turks, the Khitan, and the Tibetans.
he frontier of the empire was divided into nine sectors, each headed by a military governor who commanded a large force of professional soldiers
these forces were supported by military colonies
they were supplied them with food and military reserves.

Middle Period

policies were continued but there was a change of emphasis.
from 721, men of aristocratic background obtained appointments..
the first one of the aristocratic group to achieve prominence was Yuwen Rong.
he suggested that households, that escaped taxation by migrating to other areas, be offered amnesty from arrears of tax.
Pei Yaoqing tackled another problem by reducing the distance of carrying grain to the capital
Xuanzong could fix his capital at Chang’an.
Li Linfu rose to power and until his death in 752
he was virtually a dictator
he had risen through intrigue and dishonest means
Lin Linfu tried to improve the efficiency of the administration. L
legal reforms were instituted and changes were made to the deployment of the military
reforms to the currency were also introduced.

Final Period

from the 740s the emperor stopped playing an active role in government
he became in love with Yang Guifei, the most famous beauty in Chinese history.
at court the relations between aristocratic factions became a problem
this provided the context for the rebellion of An Lushan which broke out in 755.

Literature & the Visual Arts under Xuanzong

the Tang period is usually referred to as a golden age in Chinese culture
poetry written during that reign was later regarded as a model
the composition of poetry goes a long way back in China’s literary history.
the book of Song, dates back to the Zhou period - was one of the Confucian classics.
Cao Cao, the military leader of the fall of the Later Han had been a renowned poet
the most famous poet of the Period of Division was Tao Qian (376-427)
his poems celebrated the pleasures of the simple life in the country.
in the early Tang period poets were closely associated with the court
their poems were written to commemorate events there..

Painters & Poets

during Xuanzong’s reign a new generation of writers emerged.
they expressed their feelings of exile
Wang Wei (699-759), who was also a famous painter, was master of a form of brief verse.
Li Bo (701-62) was a close contemporary of Wang Wei.
he cultivated a reputation fore eccentricity and his poetry made use of Daoist metaphysics. - many poems refer to the moon and to his love of wine
Du Fu (712-70) was a Confucian.
his failure in the examination left him with a lasting disappointment
Xuanzong’s reign also saw important advances in the visual arts.
Wu Daozi (c. 700-60), painted Buddhist subjects and transformed the essentially sculptured ideals of India into the linear, painterly terms of the Chinese tradition.

Landscape Painting

at this time landscape painting was divided into `southern’ and `northern’ schools occurred.
artists of the southern school were amateurs and scholars,
the best known early exponent being the poet Wang Wei.
those of the northern school were professionals and court painters
the most famous of whom were Li Sixun and his son Li Zhaodao (d. 735)

The Tang World at the Time of Xuanzong

this was the period when China’s relations with the outside world were transformed.
China was surrounded by states that had borrowed culture and institutions from China
they now aspired to a separate political identity.
during the Sui dynasty China had recovered control of Annam
in the early Tang, the Chinese dominance of the areas remained secure.
North of Annam was the state of Nanzhao, centred on present-day Yunnan,
it was ruled by the people of Tai origin - they adopted the Chinese language
they had the same features of Chinese government.
in the 8th century China encouraged the emergence of a unified Nanzhao state at Dali
this acted as a buffer against the rising power of Tibet.

Relations with Tibet

Tibet itself had become a centralized monarchy and had adopted Buddhism.
Song-tsen Gampo (r. 620-49) had began a period of rapid sinicization.
soon they began a phase of rapid expansion, challenging China’s influence in Central Asia.
they began to advance into modern Qinghai.
in 696, during the Empress Wu’s reign, a Tibetan army had defeated a large Chinese force
this was less than 200 miles from Chang’an.
during Xuanzong’s reign Tibetan raiding began again
this time it was China who won the battle.
Tibet finally acknowledged Chinese suzerainty
the border between the two countries were defined.
on China’s northern borders, political entities were not as clearly established.

Relations with the Eastern Turks

the beginning of the 8th century, the eastern Turks were China’s main threats.
they dominated the whole of the steppe region from Manchuria to Ferghana.
China had to maintain an expensive defence system along the Yellow River.
the death of the Eastern Turk leader in 716 and the succession dispute weakened them
the rise of the Uighur empire in Mongolia got started
- they were once vassals of the eastern Turks and they now became clients of the Chinese.
they had been nomadic tribes, but now they established a capital at Karabalghasun.
until 840, the Uighur provided China with a reliable ally on the steppe
they received great benefits in terms of trade and subsidies.

Relations with the Korguryo

in the north-east, Koguryo had been absorbed by the Silla
in 676 Korea for the first time became a unified state.
over the next century Silla borrowed heavily from the Chinese culture,
they encouraged a Confucian scholarship and introduced competitive examinations.
the Koguryo fled to Jilin in northern Manchuria where in 713
there they established a state known to the Chinese as Bohai,
in the north-east, Koguryo had been absorbed by the Silla
in 676 Korea for the first time became a unified state.

Relations with Japan

Japan too had emerged as a unified state. under the Sui,
Japan had begun to adopt many aspects of Chinese culture

Tributary States

those states that had adopted Chinese culture began to admit the superiority of China,
they were treated by China as tributaries.
at intervals they sent tributary missions to China
they brought gifts but were rewarded with trading privileges.
the significance of these missions was not economic but political
the ceremonies performed was an acknowledgement of Chinese superiority.
the relationship with the nomadic peoples of the steppe was different in character.
it varied according to the relative strength of the steppe people and of the Chinese state.
the relationship was based on the policy of appeasement -
marriage arrangements, , trade agreements, payment of subsidies to tribal leaders.

Chang'an

the Tang empire of the 8th century was the most advanced civilization of its time and
its capital at Chang’an was probably the world’s greatest city.
the city had a population of about one million living within its walls
another million lived in its suburbs.
Chang’an was the hub of the empire,
it was served by a network of roads and canals which
they were linked it to the Silk Road to the West and the expanding population of the Yangzi valley to the south.
traders came to the Chang’an’ markets bearing exotic goods from Central Asia.
- the population included adherents of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism.
the country’s greatest port was Guangzhou
it was a cosmopolitan mercantile community had assembled itself
it included traders from India and Persia.

The Rebellion of An Lushan (755-63)

between 755 and 763 the Tang empire was shaken to its foundation, by the rebellion
it was eventually defeated and the dynasty survived another century and a half
it never recovered its former authority or glory.
- it has been identified as a major turning point in Chinese history.
- the cause of the rebellion goes back to
a)t he situation at the court and
b) the military arrangements on the frontier.

Background to the Rebellion

a military career came to be less highly regarded by the new literati
there was a dangerous tendency to depend upon foreign-born generals
An Lushan was one of these, having Sogdian and Turkish parentage.
he succeeded in gaining control of three military districts north of the capital,
meanwhile Xuanzong, in his sixties, had fallen in love with Yang Guifei,
she was the concubine of one of his sons.
Yang Guifei adopted him as her son
t was rumoured that he was her lover.
the chief minister Li Linfu died - An Lushan wanted his post
he became the rival of Yang Guifei’s cousin, Yang Guozhung for that post.

The Rebellion

An Lushan failed to secure the position
he marched on the capital in 755 in an open revolt.
he seized the capital and declared the establishment of a new dynasty.
the next eight years the country was caught in a civil war.
the emperor was forced to flee but his guards turned against him
they refused to proceed until he got rid of Yang Guifei
he had her strangled.
the emperor fled to Chengdu in the south-west
later that year abdicated in favour of his son.
An Lushan was assassinated in 757 by his own son
the rebellion was ultimately suppressed after those eight years

Problems for the Tang - Decrease of its Power

a) the rebellion,
b) fiscal difficulties, and
c) the defeat in 751 of the Korean general who commanded Chinese forces against the Arabs
the dynasty would continue on for another 150 years
it would never recover its former vitality or energy .

Consequences of the Rebellion

a) some parts of the country decreased in population.
b) other parts of the country suffered serious economic and social displacement
c) the north-east of the empire became more or less independent but
d) elsewhere provinces came under the control of military governors.
e) some of the aristocracy were forced to move to the south.
f) writers began to reflect on the lessons of history.
g) it encouraged the Tibetans to advance, and
h) in 763, for a short while they capture Chang'an.

The Post-Rebellion Restoration

many government systems continued
there were important reforms that took place
reforms to the taxation and administrative systems were introduced
a new frontier policy took effect.
it was only in the 9th century that the Tang really began to decline.
one change was the fiscal reform of an official named Liu Yan
it was during Emperor Daizong’s reign (762-79)
he tried to solve the problem of supplying Chang’an with grain
he tried to improve the financial situation of the dynasty.
he used the profits of the salt monopoly to pay for the maintenance of the canals
some of his reforms were undone by his successor Yang Yan
he worked as chief minister under the reign of Emperor Dezong (r. 779-805).

Taxes

an important reform of his was the “two-tax system”
one’s taxes were now to be paid twice a year under one tax
it had to be paid by all productive groups of society, not just the peasants.
this restored imperial control over taxation, which had
previously it had fallen into the hands of
a) financial specialists of the salt administration and
b) that of the court eunuchs who controlled the treasury.

Emperor Xianzong (r.805-820)

administrative reforms took place under the Emperor Xianzong (r. 805-20)
his concern was with the autonomy of the provinces
it led him to conduct a military campaign to Sichuan
there he defeated the general who had usurped the command.
the Emperor replaced him with one who was willing to accept a central government.
he continued on with other campaigns,
he reduced provincial autonomy
was not so successful in the north-east as he was in central areas of Asia.
the rebellion had caused the military to abandon the frontier
the result was that Tibet now took over the pasture lands
this is where China had originally obtained its supply of war horses.
now the war horses had to be purchased from very expensively from the Uighur.
they demanded a large amount of money for refraining from attacking China.

Emperor Dezong and the Uighurs

between 780 and 787, the Emperor Dezong tried to negotiate a settlement with Tibet,
Tibet refused; it was to settle where their borders would be located.
so Dezong concluded an alliance with the Uighur,
Dezong’s daughter was to marry the Uighur leader
a costly annual exchange of Uighur horses for Chinese silk was in agreement.
in return Dezong obtained the support of the Uighurs against Tibet.
this alliance is said to be the cornerstone of China’s frontier policy
it would last until the end of the Uighur empire in 840.

Buddhism During the Tang

the Sui emperors had an ally in Buddhism,
the early Tang rulers, with the exception of Empress Wu, kept their distance from it,
Xuanzong took a hard line approach to Buddhism
he refused to grant it any imperial favours such as
a) building them monasteries,
b) ordinate monks or
c) have the imperial court participate in Buddhist rituals.
he did require that they commemorate the emperor’s birthday
he had them put up images of the Buddha in the likeness of the Emperor.

The Effect of the Rebellion

the An Lushan rebellion had a disastrous effect on the Buddhist community.
the government allowed unrestricted ordination to anyone willing to pay the fee
this was because it needed money
the quality of the clergy declined as a result
the rebellion caused the destruction of many monasteries and
it brought the loss of many important collections of manuscripts,
this damaged the schools of philosophy.

Emperor Dezong & Buddhism

Pure Land Buddhism gained popularity
it was able to achieve recognition at the imperial court.
Daizong gave Buddhism imperial patronage
he believed that the dynasty owed its survival to Buddhism
he ended up supporting the construction of many monasteries
he made it possible to ordain thousands of monks.
he venerated Buddhist relics,
he sponsored vegetarian banquets
he looked for ways to reduce the economic burden of Buddhism
the Buddhist community had always been criticized, due to its cost to the state.

Turning Against Buddhism

the largest protest took place after in 819,
this is when the Emperor Xianzong had the alleged fingerbone of the Buddha
he had it brought to Chang’an so he could worship it.
the criticism came from Han Yu, a Confucian scholar
the Emperor threatened Han Yu with death
later he ordered him to leave in exile in the far south.
it was not until the reign of Wuzong (840-6) that action was taken up against Buddhism.
Wuzong was totally committed to Daoism and
he did not like to see the sight of Buddhist monks.

The Great Suppresson

since the An Lushan rebellion there had been a shortage of copper for the minting of coins
part of the reason for this shortage was that copper had been used by the Buddhists
this was for casting images and bells and chimes for the temples of the Buddhists.
the Buddhists were considered too wealthy
they had tax exemptions – thus they were an economic burden on the state.
the great suppression involved
a) seizing the private property of Buddhist monks
b) restricting of pilgrimages.
c) In 845 Wuzong ordered all monasteries to surrender their land and wealth
d) all monks and nuns under the age of forty were to be laicized.

Consequences of the Great Suppression

the results were:
a) 4600 monasteries and 40,000 temples and shrines were destroyed;
b) a quarter of a million monks and nuns were laicized;
c) several millions of acres of land were confiscated
d) sufficient amount of copper was recovered to resume the payment of salaries in cash.

The Fall of the Tang

after 820 a series of young emperors were unable to assert their authority
the courts by now were filled with factional in-fighting.
this involved the eunuchs, who really controlled the palace
they were in a position to manipulate the emperor and determine the succession.
the influence of eunuchs also stretched to the military
the emperor generally relied on them to spy on his generals
Li Deyu, Wuzong’s chief minister, took action against the eunuchs
he attempted to restore the bureaucracy.
when Xuanzong came to the throne, Li Deyu was dismissed.
the new emperor tried to reform the grain transport system and salt monopoly.

Issues & Causes of the Fall

there were more serious issues that needed to be addressed.
the most important issues were:
a) the growth of large landed estates,
b) chronic fiscal problems,
c) the deterioration of the frontiers.
the fall of the dynasty was due to the rise of disorder.
mutinies and rebellions were taking place in the lower Yangzi region during Xuanzong’s rule
they were suppressed.
In the 860’s the state of Nanzhao attacked Annam but retreated
it was costly to the Chinese treasury
there were other mutinies.

Rebellions

a rebellion broke out in the area between the Yellow and Huai rivers, where
the people there had been overtaxed and had suffered from droughts and flooding.
two leaders Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao headed the rebellion.
Wang Xianzhi was killed in 878.
Huang Chao headed south where he captured and sacked Guangzhou
in 880 he captured Chang’an which forced the emperor to flee to Chengdu.
Huang Chao founded a new dynasty
he failed to establish an effective government.
the imperial forces, with the help of the Shatuo, a Turkish tribe, defeated the rebels
Huang Chao was killed in 884.

The Collapse of the Tang

the emperor returned to Chang’an,
the dynasty had collapsed.
several things had taken place:
a) its power was only concentrated in Chang’an,
b) in the north, large parts of the country were occupied by non-Chinese forces.
c) in the east, military governors had seized territories,
d) much of central and south China had seceded and formed independent states,
in 907, Zhu Wen, a former lieutenant of Huang Chao, established the Liang Dynasty.

Ancient China

Friday, October 29, 2021

From Xuanzong to the Fall of the Tang Dynasty